Observational Fear Conditioning Procedure
The Observational Fear Conditioning Protocol is a paradigm for investigating socially acquired threat responses. This protocol serves as a suitable alternative to the widely used Pavlovian fear conditioning, in which threat responses are acquired through direct experiences. In the Observational Fear Conditioning Protocol, the participant (observer) watches a demonstrator being presented with a conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US).
For more information about the Observational Fear Conditioning Protocol, please see Haaker, J., Golkar, A., Selbing, I., & Olsson, A. (2017). Assessment of social transmission of threats in humans using observational fear conditioning. Nature Protocols, 12, 1378. doi:10.1038/nprot.2017.027
Additional References
2020
Szczepanik, M; Kaźmierowska, A M; Michałowski, J M; Wypych, M; Olsson, A; Knapska, E
Observational learning of fear in real time procedure Journal Article
Scientific Reports, 10 , 2020.
@article{Szczepanik2020b,
title = {Observational learning of fear in real time procedure},
author = {M Szczepanik and A M Ka\'{z}mierowska and J M Micha\lowski and M Wypych and A Olsson and E Knapska},
url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74113-w},
year = {2020},
date = {2020-10-12},
journal = {Scientific Reports},
volume = {10},
abstract = {Learning to avoid threats often occurs by observing others. Most previous research on observational fear learning (OFL) in humans has used pre-recorded standardized video of an actor and thus lacked ecological validity. Here, we aimed to enhance ecological validity of the OFL by engaging participants in a real-time observational procedure (35 pairs of healthy male friends, age 18\textendash27). One of the participants watched the other undergo a differential fear conditioning task, in which a conditioned stimulus (CS+) was paired with an aversive electric shock and another stimulus (CS−) was always safe. Subsequently, the CS+ and CS− were presented to the observer to test the OFL. While the friend’s reactions to the shock elicited strong skin conductance responses (SCR) in all observers, subsequent differential SCRs (CS+ > CS−) were found only when declarative knowledge of the CS+/US contingency (rated by the participants) was acquired. Contingency-aware observers also showed elevated fear potentiated startle responses during both CS+ and CS− compared to baseline. We conclude that our real-time procedure can be effectively used to study OFL. The procedure allowed for dissecting two components of the OFL: an automatic emotional reaction to the response of the demonstrator and learning about stimulus contingency.},
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Learning to avoid threats often occurs by observing others. Most previous research on observational fear learning (OFL) in humans has used pre-recorded standardized video of an actor and thus lacked ecological validity. Here, we aimed to enhance ecological validity of the OFL by engaging participants in a real-time observational procedure (35 pairs of healthy male friends, age 18–27). One of the participants watched the other undergo a differential fear conditioning task, in which a conditioned stimulus (CS+) was paired with an aversive electric shock and another stimulus (CS−) was always safe. Subsequently, the CS+ and CS− were presented to the observer to test the OFL. While the friend’s reactions to the shock elicited strong skin conductance responses (SCR) in all observers, subsequent differential SCRs (CS+ > CS−) were found only when declarative knowledge of the CS+/US contingency (rated by the participants) was acquired. Contingency-aware observers also showed elevated fear potentiated startle responses during both CS+ and CS− compared to baseline. We conclude that our real-time procedure can be effectively used to study OFL. The procedure allowed for dissecting two components of the OFL: an automatic emotional reaction to the response of the demonstrator and learning about stimulus contingency.
2018
Lindström, B; Haaker, J; Olsson, A
A common neural network differentially mediates direct and social fear learning Journal Article
NeuroImage, 2018.
@article{Lindstr\"{o}m2018,
title = {A common neural network differentially mediates direct and social fear learning},
author = {B Lindstr\"{o}m and J Haaker and A Olsson},
doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.039},
year = {2018},
date = {2018-02-15},
journal = {NeuroImage},
abstract = {Across species, fears often spread between individuals through social learning. Yet, little is known about the neural and computational mechanisms underlying social learning. Addressing this question, we compared social and direct (Pavlovian) fear learning showing that they showed indistinguishable behavioral effects, and involved the same cross-modal (self/other) aversive learning network, centered on the amygdala, the anterior insula (AI), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Crucially, the information flow within this network differed between social and direct fear learning. Dynamic causal modeling combined with reinforcement learning modeling revealed that the amygdala and AI provided input to this network during direct and social learning, respectively. Furthermore, the AI gated learning signals based on surprise (associability), which were conveyed to the ACC, in both learning modalities. Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms underlying social fear learning, with implications for understanding common psychological dysfunctions, such as phobias and other anxiety disorders.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Across species, fears often spread between individuals through social learning. Yet, little is known about the neural and computational mechanisms underlying social learning. Addressing this question, we compared social and direct (Pavlovian) fear learning showing that they showed indistinguishable behavioral effects, and involved the same cross-modal (self/other) aversive learning network, centered on the amygdala, the anterior insula (AI), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Crucially, the information flow within this network differed between social and direct fear learning. Dynamic causal modeling combined with reinforcement learning modeling revealed that the amygdala and AI provided input to this network during direct and social learning, respectively. Furthermore, the AI gated learning signals based on surprise (associability), which were conveyed to the ACC, in both learning modalities. Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms underlying social fear learning, with implications for understanding common psychological dysfunctions, such as phobias and other anxiety disorders.
2017
Golkar, A; Olsson, A
The interplay of social group biases in social threat learning Journal Article
Scientific Reports, 7 (1), pp. 7685, 2017, ISSN: 2045-2322.
@article{Golkar2017,
title = {The interplay of social group biases in social threat learning},
author = {A Golkar and A Olsson},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar-Olsson-2017-The-interplay-of-social-group-biases-in-social-threat-learning.pdf},
doi = {10.1038/s41598-017-07522-z},
issn = {2045-2322},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-08-09},
journal = {Scientific Reports},
volume = {7},
number = {1},
pages = {7685},
abstract = {Learning from other individuals (e.g. social learning) is subjected to biases affecting whom to learn from. Consistent with research in animals, showing similarity-based learning biases and a general tendency to display pro-social responses to in-group individuals, we recently demonstrated that social learning of both fear and safety was enhanced when information was transmitted between same-race individuals. Here, we addressed how two different social group categories jointly affect the transmission of fears by investigating the interplay between racial and supporter group membership. We demonstrate that supporter group membership differentially influenced learning from a racial in-group vs. racial out-group individual. Thus, conditioned skin conductance responses in the same-race condition were significantly higher when fear was transmitted by an in-group (same team) vs. an out-group (rival team) individual, and were related to supporter team identification. However, supporter group membership did not influence learning from a racial out-group demonstrator, suggesting that the presence of an alternative alliance does not necessary reduce the influence of racial biases on social fear learning.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Learning from other individuals (e.g. social learning) is subjected to biases affecting whom to learn from. Consistent with research in animals, showing similarity-based learning biases and a general tendency to display pro-social responses to in-group individuals, we recently demonstrated that social learning of both fear and safety was enhanced when information was transmitted between same-race individuals. Here, we addressed how two different social group categories jointly affect the transmission of fears by investigating the interplay between racial and supporter group membership. We demonstrate that supporter group membership differentially influenced learning from a racial in-group vs. racial out-group individual. Thus, conditioned skin conductance responses in the same-race condition were significantly higher when fear was transmitted by an in-group (same team) vs. an out-group (rival team) individual, and were related to supporter team identification. However, supporter group membership did not influence learning from a racial out-group demonstrator, suggesting that the presence of an alternative alliance does not necessary reduce the influence of racial biases on social fear learning. Debiec, J; Olsson, A
Social fear learning: From animal models to human function Journal Article
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2017.
@article{Debiec2017,
title = {Social fear learning: From animal models to human function},
author = {J Debiec and A Olsson },
doi = {10.1016/j.tics.2017.04.010},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-07-01},
journal = {Trends in Cognitive Sciences},
abstract = {Learning about potential threats is critical for survival. Learned fear responses are acquired either through direct experiences or indirectly through social transmission. Social fear learning (SFL), also known as vicarious fear learning, is a paradigm successfully used for studying the transmission of threat information between individuals. Animal and human studies have begun to elucidate the behavioral, neural and molecular mechanisms of SFL. Recent research suggests that social learning mechanisms underlie a wide range of adaptive and maladaptive phenomena, from supporting flexible avoidance in dynamic environments to intergenerational transmission of trauma and anxiety disorders. This review discusses recent advances in SFL studies and their implications for basic, social and clinical sciences.},
keywords = {},
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Learning about potential threats is critical for survival. Learned fear responses are acquired either through direct experiences or indirectly through social transmission. Social fear learning (SFL), also known as vicarious fear learning, is a paradigm successfully used for studying the transmission of threat information between individuals. Animal and human studies have begun to elucidate the behavioral, neural and molecular mechanisms of SFL. Recent research suggests that social learning mechanisms underlie a wide range of adaptive and maladaptive phenomena, from supporting flexible avoidance in dynamic environments to intergenerational transmission of trauma and anxiety disorders. This review discusses recent advances in SFL studies and their implications for basic, social and clinical sciences. Haaker, J; Golkar, A; Selbing, I; Olsson, A
Assessing social transmission of threats in humans using the observational fear conditioning procedure Journal Article
Nature Protocols, (12), pp. 1378–1386, 2017.
@article{Haaker2017,
title = {Assessing social transmission of threats in humans using the observational fear conditioning procedure},
author = {J Haaker and A Golkar and I Selbing and A Olsson},
doi = {10.1038/nprot.2017.027},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-06-15},
journal = {Nature Protocols},
number = {12},
pages = {1378\textendash1386},
abstract = {Across the human life span, fear is often acquired indirectly by observation of the emotional expressions of others. The observational fear conditioning protocol was previously developed as a laboratory model for investigating socially acquired threat responses. This protocol serves as a suitable alternative to the widely used Pavlovian fear conditioning, in which threat responses are acquired through direct experiences. In the observational fear conditioning protocol, the participant (observer) watches a demonstrator being presented with a conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). The expression of threat learning is measured as the conditioned response (CR) expressed by the observer in the absence of the demonstrator. CRs are commonly measured as skin conductance responses, but behavioral and neural measures have also been implemented. The experimental procedure is suitable for divergent populations, can be administered by a graduate student and takes ∼40 min. Similar protocols are used in animals, emphasizing its value as a translational tool for studying socioemotional learning.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Across the human life span, fear is often acquired indirectly by observation of the emotional expressions of others. The observational fear conditioning protocol was previously developed as a laboratory model for investigating socially acquired threat responses. This protocol serves as a suitable alternative to the widely used Pavlovian fear conditioning, in which threat responses are acquired through direct experiences. In the observational fear conditioning protocol, the participant (observer) watches a demonstrator being presented with a conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). The expression of threat learning is measured as the conditioned response (CR) expressed by the observer in the absence of the demonstrator. CRs are commonly measured as skin conductance responses, but behavioral and neural measures have also been implemented. The experimental procedure is suitable for divergent populations, can be administered by a graduate student and takes ∼40 min. Similar protocols are used in animals, emphasizing its value as a translational tool for studying socioemotional learning. Haaker, J; Yi, J; Petrovic, P; Olsson, A
Endogenous opioids regulate social threat learning in humans Journal Article
Nature Communications, 8 , 2017.
@article{Olsson2017,
title = {Endogenous opioids regulate social threat learning in humans},
author = {J Haaker and J Yi and P Petrovic and A Olsson},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Haaker2017.pdf},
doi = {10.1038/ncomms15495},
year = {2017},
date = {2017-05-25},
journal = {Nature Communications},
volume = {8},
abstract = {Many fearful expectations are shaped by observation of aversive outcomes to others. Yet, the neurochemistry regulating social learning is unknown. Previous research has shown that during direct (Pavlovian) threat learning, information about personally experienced outcomes is regulated by the release of endogenous opioids, and activity within the amygdala and periaqueductal gray (PAG). Here we report that blockade of this opioidergic circuit enhances social threat learning through observation in humans involving activity within the amygdala, midline thalamus and the PAG. In particular, anticipatory responses to learned threat cues (CS) were associated with temporal dynamics in the PAG, coding the observed aversive outcomes to other (observational US). In addition, pharmacological challenge of the opioid receptor function is classified by distinct brain activity patterns during the expression of conditioned threats. Our results reveal an opioidergic circuit that codes the observed aversive outcomes to others into threat responses and long-term memory in the observer.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Many fearful expectations are shaped by observation of aversive outcomes to others. Yet, the neurochemistry regulating social learning is unknown. Previous research has shown that during direct (Pavlovian) threat learning, information about personally experienced outcomes is regulated by the release of endogenous opioids, and activity within the amygdala and periaqueductal gray (PAG). Here we report that blockade of this opioidergic circuit enhances social threat learning through observation in humans involving activity within the amygdala, midline thalamus and the PAG. In particular, anticipatory responses to learned threat cues (CS) were associated with temporal dynamics in the PAG, coding the observed aversive outcomes to other (observational US). In addition, pharmacological challenge of the opioid receptor function is classified by distinct brain activity patterns during the expression of conditioned threats. Our results reveal an opioidergic circuit that codes the observed aversive outcomes to others into threat responses and long-term memory in the observer.
2016
Golkar, A; Haaker, J; Selbing, I; Olsson, A
Neural signals of vicarious extinction learning Journal Article
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11 (10), pp. 1541-1549, 2016.
@article{Golkar2016,
title = {Neural signals of vicarious extinction learning},
author = {A Golkar and J Haaker and I Selbing and A Olsson},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Armita_SCAN_authorscopy.pdf},
doi = {10.1093/scan/nsw068},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-02-13},
journal = {Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience},
volume = {11},
number = {10},
pages = {1541-1549},
abstract = {Social transmission of both threat and safety is ubiquitous, but little is known about the neural circuitry underlying vicarious safety learning. This is surprising given that these processes are critical to flexibly adapt to a changeable environment. To address how the expression of previously learned fears can be modified by the transmission of social information, two conditioned stimuli (CS + s) were paired with shock and the third was not. During extinction, we held constant the amount of direct, non-reinforced, exposure to the CSs (i.e. direct extinction), and critically varied whether another individual-acting as a demonstrator-experienced safety (CS + vic safety) or aversive reinforcement (CS + vic reinf). During extinction, ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) responses to the CS + vic reinf increased but decreased to the CS + vic safety This pattern of vmPFC activity was reversed during a subsequent fear reinstatement test, suggesting a temporal shift in the involvement of the vmPFC. Moreover, only the CS + vic reinf association recovered. Our data suggest that vicarious extinction prevents the return of conditioned fear responses, and that this efficacy is reflected by diminished vmPFC involvement during extinction learning. The present findings may have important implications for understanding how social information influences the persistence of fear memories in individuals suffering from emotional disorders.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Social transmission of both threat and safety is ubiquitous, but little is known about the neural circuitry underlying vicarious safety learning. This is surprising given that these processes are critical to flexibly adapt to a changeable environment. To address how the expression of previously learned fears can be modified by the transmission of social information, two conditioned stimuli (CS + s) were paired with shock and the third was not. During extinction, we held constant the amount of direct, non-reinforced, exposure to the CSs (i.e. direct extinction), and critically varied whether another individual-acting as a demonstrator-experienced safety (CS + vic safety) or aversive reinforcement (CS + vic reinf). During extinction, ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) responses to the CS + vic reinf increased but decreased to the CS + vic safety This pattern of vmPFC activity was reversed during a subsequent fear reinstatement test, suggesting a temporal shift in the involvement of the vmPFC. Moreover, only the CS + vic reinf association recovered. Our data suggest that vicarious extinction prevents the return of conditioned fear responses, and that this efficacy is reflected by diminished vmPFC involvement during extinction learning. The present findings may have important implications for understanding how social information influences the persistence of fear memories in individuals suffering from emotional disorders. Golkar, A; Olsson, A
Immunization against social fear learning Journal Article
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145 (6), pp. 665-671, 2016.
@article{Golkar2016b,
title = {Immunization against social fear learning},
author = {A Golkar and A Olsson},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar2016b.pdf},
doi = {10.1037/xge0000173},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: General},
volume = {145},
number = {6},
pages = {665-671},
publisher = {American Psychological Association},
abstract = {Social fear learning offers an efficient way to transmit information about potential threats; little is known, however, about the learning processes that counteract the social transmission of fear. In three separate experiments, we found that safety information transmitted from another individual (i.e., demonstrator) during preexposure prevented subsequent observational fear learning (Experiments 1\textendash3), and this effect was maintained in a new context involving direct threat confrontation (Experiment 3). This protection from observational fear learning was specific to conditions in which information about both safety and danger was transmitted from the same demonstrator (Experiments 2\textendash3) and was unaffected by increasing the number of the safety demonstrators (Experiment 3). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that observational preexposure can limit social transmission of fear. Future research is needed to better understand the conditions under which such effects generalize across individual demonstrators.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
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}
Social fear learning offers an efficient way to transmit information about potential threats; little is known, however, about the learning processes that counteract the social transmission of fear. In three separate experiments, we found that safety information transmitted from another individual (i.e., demonstrator) during preexposure prevented subsequent observational fear learning (Experiments 1–3), and this effect was maintained in a new context involving direct threat confrontation (Experiment 3). This protection from observational fear learning was specific to conditions in which information about both safety and danger was transmitted from the same demonstrator (Experiments 2–3) and was unaffected by increasing the number of the safety demonstrators (Experiment 3). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that observational preexposure can limit social transmission of fear. Future research is needed to better understand the conditions under which such effects generalize across individual demonstrators. Olsson, A; Kopsida, E; Sorjonen, K; Savic, I
Testosterone and estrogen impact social evaluations and vicarious emotions: A double-blind placebo-controlled study Journal Article
Emotion, 16 (4), pp. 515-523, 2016.
@article{Olsson2016b,
title = {Testosterone and estrogen impact social evaluations and vicarious emotions: A double-blind placebo-controlled study},
author = {A Olsson and E Kopsida and K Sorjonen and I Savic},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Olsson_etal_testosterone2016.pdf},
doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039765},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Emotion},
volume = {16},
number = {4},
pages = {515-523},
abstract = {The abilities to "read" other peoples' intentions and emotions, and to learn from their experiences, are critical to survival. Previous studies have highlighted the role of sex hormones, notably testosterone and estrogen, in these processes. Yet it is unclear how these hormones affect social cognition and emotion using acute hormonal administration. In the present double-blind placebo-controlled study, we administered an acute exogenous dose of testosterone or estrogen to healthy female and male volunteers, respectively, with the aim of investigating the effects of these steroids on social-cognitive and emotional processes. Following hormonal and placebo treatment, participants made (a) facial dominance judgments, (b) mental state inferences (Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test), and (c) learned aversive associations through watching others' emotional responses (observational fear learning [OFL]). Our results showed that testosterone administration to females enhanced ratings of facial dominance but diminished their accuracy in inferring mental states. In men, estrogen administration resulted in an increase in emotional (vicarious) reactivity when watching a distressed other during the OFL task. Taken together, these results suggest that sex hormones affect social-cognitive and emotional functions at several levels, linking our results to neuropsychiatric disorders in which these functions are impaired},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
The abilities to "read" other peoples' intentions and emotions, and to learn from their experiences, are critical to survival. Previous studies have highlighted the role of sex hormones, notably testosterone and estrogen, in these processes. Yet it is unclear how these hormones affect social cognition and emotion using acute hormonal administration. In the present double-blind placebo-controlled study, we administered an acute exogenous dose of testosterone or estrogen to healthy female and male volunteers, respectively, with the aim of investigating the effects of these steroids on social-cognitive and emotional processes. Following hormonal and placebo treatment, participants made (a) facial dominance judgments, (b) mental state inferences (Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test), and (c) learned aversive associations through watching others' emotional responses (observational fear learning [OFL]). Our results showed that testosterone administration to females enhanced ratings of facial dominance but diminished their accuracy in inferring mental states. In men, estrogen administration resulted in an increase in emotional (vicarious) reactivity when watching a distressed other during the OFL task. Taken together, these results suggest that sex hormones affect social-cognitive and emotional functions at several levels, linking our results to neuropsychiatric disorders in which these functions are impaired Olsson, A; McMahon, K; Papenberg, G; Zaki, J; Bolger, N; Ochsner, K N
Vicarious fear learning depends on empathic appraisals and trait empathy Journal Article
Psychological Science, 27 (1), pp. 25-33, 2016, (PMID: 26637357).
@article{Olsson2016,
title = {Vicarious fear learning depends on empathic appraisals and trait empathy},
author = {A Olsson and K McMahon and G Papenberg and J Zaki and N Bolger and K N Ochsner},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Olsson2016.pdf},
doi = {10.1177/0956797615604124},
year = {2016},
date = {2016-01-01},
journal = {Psychological Science},
volume = {27},
number = {1},
pages = {25-33},
abstract = {Empathy and vicarious learning of fear are increasingly understood as separate phenomena, but the interaction between the two remains poorly understood. We investigated how social (vicarious) fear learning is affected by empathic appraisals by asking participants to either enhance or decrease their empathic responses to another individual (the demonstrator), who received electric shocks paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus. A third group of participants received no appraisal instructions and responded naturally to the demonstrator. During a later test, participants who had enhanced their empathy evinced the strongest vicarious fear learning as measured by skin conductance responses to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the demonstrator. Moreover, this effect was augmented in observers high in trait empathy. Our results suggest that a demonstrator’s expression can serve as a “social” unconditioned stimulus (US), similar to a personally experienced US in Pavlovian fear conditioning, and that learning from a social US depends on both empathic appraisals and the observers’ stable traits.},
note = {PMID: 26637357},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Empathy and vicarious learning of fear are increasingly understood as separate phenomena, but the interaction between the two remains poorly understood. We investigated how social (vicarious) fear learning is affected by empathic appraisals by asking participants to either enhance or decrease their empathic responses to another individual (the demonstrator), who received electric shocks paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus. A third group of participants received no appraisal instructions and responded naturally to the demonstrator. During a later test, participants who had enhanced their empathy evinced the strongest vicarious fear learning as measured by skin conductance responses to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the demonstrator. Moreover, this effect was augmented in observers high in trait empathy. Our results suggest that a demonstrator’s expression can serve as a “social” unconditioned stimulus (US), similar to a personally experienced US in Pavlovian fear conditioning, and that learning from a social US depends on both empathic appraisals and the observers’ stable traits.
2015
Kleberg, J L; Selbing, I; Lundqvist, D; Hofvander, B; Olsson, A
Spontaneous eye movements and trait empathy predict vicarious learning of fear Journal Article
International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98 (3), pp. 577–583, 2015.
@article{Kleberg2015,
title = {Spontaneous eye movements and trait empathy predict vicarious learning of fear},
author = {J L Kleberg and I Selbing and D Lundqvist and B Hofvander and A Olsson},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Kleberg-et-al-2015-1.pdf},
doi = {10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.001},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-04-11},
journal = {International Journal of Psychophysiology},
volume = {98},
number = {3},
pages = {577--583},
abstract = {Learning to predict dangerous outcomes is important to survival. In humans, this kind of learning is often transmitted through the observation of others' emotional responses. We analyzed eye movements during an observational/vicarious fear learning procedure, in which healthy participants (N = 33) watched another individual (‘learning model’) receiving aversive treatment (shocks) paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus (CS +), but not a control stimulus (CS −). Participants' gaze pattern towards the model differentiated as a function of whether the CS was predictive or not of a shock to the model. Consistent with our hypothesis that the face of a conspecific in distress can act as an unconditioned stimulus (US), we found that the total fixation time at a learning model's face increased when the CS + was shown. Furthermore, we found that the total fixation time at the CS + during learning predicted participants' conditioned responses (CRs) at a later test in the absence of the model. We also demonstrated that trait empathy was associated with stronger CRs, and that autistic traits were positively related to autonomic reactions to watching the model receiving the aversive treatment. Our results have implications for both healthy and dysfunctional socio-emotional learning.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Learning to predict dangerous outcomes is important to survival. In humans, this kind of learning is often transmitted through the observation of others' emotional responses. We analyzed eye movements during an observational/vicarious fear learning procedure, in which healthy participants (N = 33) watched another individual (‘learning model’) receiving aversive treatment (shocks) paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus (CS +), but not a control stimulus (CS −). Participants' gaze pattern towards the model differentiated as a function of whether the CS was predictive or not of a shock to the model. Consistent with our hypothesis that the face of a conspecific in distress can act as an unconditioned stimulus (US), we found that the total fixation time at a learning model's face increased when the CS + was shown. Furthermore, we found that the total fixation time at the CS + during learning predicted participants' conditioned responses (CRs) at a later test in the absence of the model. We also demonstrated that trait empathy was associated with stronger CRs, and that autistic traits were positively related to autonomic reactions to watching the model receiving the aversive treatment. Our results have implications for both healthy and dysfunctional socio-emotional learning. Golkar, A; Castro, V; Olsson, A
Social learning of fear and safety is determined by the demonstrator's racial group Journal Article
Biology Letters, 11 (1), 2015.
@article{Golkar2015,
title = {Social learning of fear and safety is determined by the demonstrator's racial group},
author = {A Golkar and V Castro and A Olsson},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar2015.pdf},
doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2014.0817},
year = {2015},
date = {2015-01-28},
journal = {Biology Letters},
volume = {11},
number = {1},
abstract = {Social learning offers an efficient route through which humans and other animals learn about potential dangers in the environment. Such learning inherently relies on the transmission of social information and should imply selectivity in what to learn from whom. Here, we conducted two observational learning experiments to assess how humans learn about danger and safety from members (‘demonstrators') of an other social group than their own. We show that both fear and safety learning from a racial in-group demonstrator was more potent than learning from a racial out-group demonstrator.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Social learning offers an efficient route through which humans and other animals learn about potential dangers in the environment. Such learning inherently relies on the transmission of social information and should imply selectivity in what to learn from whom. Here, we conducted two observational learning experiments to assess how humans learn about danger and safety from members (‘demonstrators') of an other social group than their own. We show that both fear and safety learning from a racial in-group demonstrator was more potent than learning from a racial out-group demonstrator.
2013
Golkar, A; Selbing, I; Flygare, O; Öhman, A; Olsson, A
Other people as means to a safe end Journal Article
Psychological Science, 24 (11), pp. 2182-2190, 2013.
@article{Golkar2013,
title = {Other people as means to a safe end},
author = {A Golkar and I Selbing and O Flygare and A \"{O}hman and A Olsson},
url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar2013.pdf},
doi = {10.1177/0956797613489890},
year = {2013},
date = {2013-09-10},
journal = {Psychological Science},
volume = {24},
number = {11},
pages = {2182-2190},
abstract = {Information about what is dangerous and safe in the environment is often transferred from other individuals through social forms of learning, such as observation. Past research has focused on the observational, or vicarious, acquisition of fears, but little is known about how social information can promote safety learning. To address this issue, we studied the effects of vicarious-extinction learning on the recovery of conditioned fear. Compared with a standard extinction procedure, vicarious extinction promoted better extinction and effectively blocked the return of previously learned fear. We confirmed that these effects could not be attributed to the presence of a learning model per se but were specifically driven by the model’s experience of safety. Our results confirm that vicarious and direct emotional learning share important characteristics but that social-safety information promotes superior down-regulation of learned fear. These findings have implications for emotional learning, social-affective processes, and clinical practice.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Information about what is dangerous and safe in the environment is often transferred from other individuals through social forms of learning, such as observation. Past research has focused on the observational, or vicarious, acquisition of fears, but little is known about how social information can promote safety learning. To address this issue, we studied the effects of vicarious-extinction learning on the recovery of conditioned fear. Compared with a standard extinction procedure, vicarious extinction promoted better extinction and effectively blocked the return of previously learned fear. We confirmed that these effects could not be attributed to the presence of a learning model per se but were specifically driven by the model’s experience of safety. Our results confirm that vicarious and direct emotional learning share important characteristics but that social-safety information promotes superior down-regulation of learned fear. These findings have implications for emotional learning, social-affective processes, and clinical practice.
2007
Olsson, A; Phelps, E A
Social learning of fear Journal Article
Nature Neuroscience, 10 (9), pp. 1095–1102, 2007, ISSN: 1097-6256.
@article{Olsson2007b,
title = {Social learning of fear},
author = {A Olsson and E A Phelps},
doi = {10.1038/nn1968},
issn = {1097-6256},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-09-01},
journal = {Nature Neuroscience},
volume = {10},
number = {9},
pages = {1095--1102},
abstract = {Research across species highlights the critical role of the amygdala in fear conditioning. However, fear conditioning, involving direct aversive experience, is only one means by which fears can be acquired. Exploiting aversive experiences of other individuals through social fear learning is less risky. Behavioral research provides important insights into the workings of social fear learning, and the neural mechanisms are beginning to be understood. We review research suggesting that an amygdala-centered model of fear conditioning can help to explain social learning of fear through observation and instruction. We also describe how observational and instructed fear is distinguished by involvement of additional neural systems implicated in social-emotional behavior, language and explicit memory, and propose a modified conditioning model to account for social fear learning. A better understanding of social fear learning promotes integration of biological principles of learning with cultural evolution.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Research across species highlights the critical role of the amygdala in fear conditioning. However, fear conditioning, involving direct aversive experience, is only one means by which fears can be acquired. Exploiting aversive experiences of other individuals through social fear learning is less risky. Behavioral research provides important insights into the workings of social fear learning, and the neural mechanisms are beginning to be understood. We review research suggesting that an amygdala-centered model of fear conditioning can help to explain social learning of fear through observation and instruction. We also describe how observational and instructed fear is distinguished by involvement of additional neural systems implicated in social-emotional behavior, language and explicit memory, and propose a modified conditioning model to account for social fear learning. A better understanding of social fear learning promotes integration of biological principles of learning with cultural evolution. Olsson, A; Nearing, K I; Phelps, E A
Learning fears by observing others: the neural systems of social fear transmission Journal Article
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2 (1), pp. 3–11, 2007, ISSN: 1749-5016.
@article{Olsson2007a,
title = {Learning fears by observing others: the neural systems of social fear transmission},
author = {A Olsson and K I Nearing and E A Phelps},
doi = {10.1093/scan/nsm005},
issn = {1749-5016},
year = {2007},
date = {2007-03-01},
journal = {Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience},
volume = {2},
number = {1},
pages = {3--11},
abstract = {Classical fear conditioning has been used as a model paradigm to explain fear learning across species. In this paradigm, the amygdala is known to play a critical role. However, classical fear conditioning requires first-hand experience with an aversive event, which may not be how most fears are acquired in humans. It remains to be determined whether the conditioning model can be extended to indirect forms of learning more common in humans. Here we show that fear acquired indirectly through social observation, with no personal experience of the aversive event, engages similar neural mechanisms as fear conditioning. The amygdala was recruited both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in an analogous situation. These findings confirm the central role of the amygdala in the acquisition and expression of observational fear learning, and validate the extension of cross-species models of fear conditioning to learning in a human sociocultural context. Our findings also provides new insights into the relationship between learning from, and empathizing with, fearful others. This study suggests that indirectly attained fears may be as powerful as fears originating from direct experiences.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
Classical fear conditioning has been used as a model paradigm to explain fear learning across species. In this paradigm, the amygdala is known to play a critical role. However, classical fear conditioning requires first-hand experience with an aversive event, which may not be how most fears are acquired in humans. It remains to be determined whether the conditioning model can be extended to indirect forms of learning more common in humans. Here we show that fear acquired indirectly through social observation, with no personal experience of the aversive event, engages similar neural mechanisms as fear conditioning. The amygdala was recruited both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in an analogous situation. These findings confirm the central role of the amygdala in the acquisition and expression of observational fear learning, and validate the extension of cross-species models of fear conditioning to learning in a human sociocultural context. Our findings also provides new insights into the relationship between learning from, and empathizing with, fearful others. This study suggests that indirectly attained fears may be as powerful as fears originating from direct experiences.
2004
Olsson, A; Phelps, E A
Learned fear of “unseen” faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear Journal Article
Psychological Science, 15 (12), pp. 822–828, 2004, ISSN: 0956-7976.
@article{Olsson2004,
title = {Learned fear of “unseen” faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear},
author = {A Olsson and E A Phelps},
doi = {10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00762.x},
issn = {0956-7976},
year = {2004},
date = {2004-12-01},
journal = {Psychological Science},
volume = {15},
number = {12},
pages = {822--828},
abstract = {This study compared fear learning acquired through direct experience (Pavlovian conditioning) and fear learning acquired without direct experience via either observation or verbal instruction. We examined whether these three types of learning yielded differential responses to conditioned stimuli (CS+) that were presented unmasked (available to explicit awareness) or masked (not available to explicit awareness). In the Pavlovian group, the CS+ was paired with a mild shock, whereas the observational-learning group learned through observing the emotional expression of a confederate receiving shocks paired with the CS+. The instructed-learning group was told that the CS+ predicted a shock. The three groups demonstrated similar levels of learning as measured by the skin conductance response to unmasked stimuli. As in previous studies, participants also displayed a significant learning response to masked stimuli following Pavlovian conditioning. However, whereas the observational-learning group also showed this effect, the instructed-learning group did not.},
keywords = {},
pubstate = {published},
tppubtype = {article}
}
This study compared fear learning acquired through direct experience (Pavlovian conditioning) and fear learning acquired without direct experience via either observation or verbal instruction. We examined whether these three types of learning yielded differential responses to conditioned stimuli (CS+) that were presented unmasked (available to explicit awareness) or masked (not available to explicit awareness). In the Pavlovian group, the CS+ was paired with a mild shock, whereas the observational-learning group learned through observing the emotional expression of a confederate receiving shocks paired with the CS+. The instructed-learning group was told that the CS+ predicted a shock. The three groups demonstrated similar levels of learning as measured by the skin conductance response to unmasked stimuli. As in previous studies, participants also displayed a significant learning response to masked stimuli following Pavlovian conditioning. However, whereas the observational-learning group also showed this effect, the instructed-learning group did not.
2020 |
Szczepanik, M; Kaźmierowska, A M; Michałowski, J M; Wypych, M; Olsson, A; Knapska, E Observational learning of fear in real time procedure Journal Article Scientific Reports, 10 , 2020. @article{Szczepanik2020b, title = {Observational learning of fear in real time procedure}, author = {M Szczepanik and A M Ka\'{z}mierowska and J M Micha\lowski and M Wypych and A Olsson and E Knapska}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74113-w}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-10-12}, journal = {Scientific Reports}, volume = {10}, abstract = {Learning to avoid threats often occurs by observing others. Most previous research on observational fear learning (OFL) in humans has used pre-recorded standardized video of an actor and thus lacked ecological validity. Here, we aimed to enhance ecological validity of the OFL by engaging participants in a real-time observational procedure (35 pairs of healthy male friends, age 18\textendash27). One of the participants watched the other undergo a differential fear conditioning task, in which a conditioned stimulus (CS+) was paired with an aversive electric shock and another stimulus (CS−) was always safe. Subsequently, the CS+ and CS− were presented to the observer to test the OFL. While the friend’s reactions to the shock elicited strong skin conductance responses (SCR) in all observers, subsequent differential SCRs (CS+ > CS−) were found only when declarative knowledge of the CS+/US contingency (rated by the participants) was acquired. Contingency-aware observers also showed elevated fear potentiated startle responses during both CS+ and CS− compared to baseline. We conclude that our real-time procedure can be effectively used to study OFL. The procedure allowed for dissecting two components of the OFL: an automatic emotional reaction to the response of the demonstrator and learning about stimulus contingency.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Learning to avoid threats often occurs by observing others. Most previous research on observational fear learning (OFL) in humans has used pre-recorded standardized video of an actor and thus lacked ecological validity. Here, we aimed to enhance ecological validity of the OFL by engaging participants in a real-time observational procedure (35 pairs of healthy male friends, age 18–27). One of the participants watched the other undergo a differential fear conditioning task, in which a conditioned stimulus (CS+) was paired with an aversive electric shock and another stimulus (CS−) was always safe. Subsequently, the CS+ and CS− were presented to the observer to test the OFL. While the friend’s reactions to the shock elicited strong skin conductance responses (SCR) in all observers, subsequent differential SCRs (CS+ > CS−) were found only when declarative knowledge of the CS+/US contingency (rated by the participants) was acquired. Contingency-aware observers also showed elevated fear potentiated startle responses during both CS+ and CS− compared to baseline. We conclude that our real-time procedure can be effectively used to study OFL. The procedure allowed for dissecting two components of the OFL: an automatic emotional reaction to the response of the demonstrator and learning about stimulus contingency. |
2018 |
Lindström, B; Haaker, J; Olsson, A A common neural network differentially mediates direct and social fear learning Journal Article NeuroImage, 2018. @article{Lindstr\"{o}m2018, title = {A common neural network differentially mediates direct and social fear learning}, author = {B Lindstr\"{o}m and J Haaker and A Olsson}, doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.039}, year = {2018}, date = {2018-02-15}, journal = {NeuroImage}, abstract = {Across species, fears often spread between individuals through social learning. Yet, little is known about the neural and computational mechanisms underlying social learning. Addressing this question, we compared social and direct (Pavlovian) fear learning showing that they showed indistinguishable behavioral effects, and involved the same cross-modal (self/other) aversive learning network, centered on the amygdala, the anterior insula (AI), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Crucially, the information flow within this network differed between social and direct fear learning. Dynamic causal modeling combined with reinforcement learning modeling revealed that the amygdala and AI provided input to this network during direct and social learning, respectively. Furthermore, the AI gated learning signals based on surprise (associability), which were conveyed to the ACC, in both learning modalities. Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms underlying social fear learning, with implications for understanding common psychological dysfunctions, such as phobias and other anxiety disorders.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Across species, fears often spread between individuals through social learning. Yet, little is known about the neural and computational mechanisms underlying social learning. Addressing this question, we compared social and direct (Pavlovian) fear learning showing that they showed indistinguishable behavioral effects, and involved the same cross-modal (self/other) aversive learning network, centered on the amygdala, the anterior insula (AI), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Crucially, the information flow within this network differed between social and direct fear learning. Dynamic causal modeling combined with reinforcement learning modeling revealed that the amygdala and AI provided input to this network during direct and social learning, respectively. Furthermore, the AI gated learning signals based on surprise (associability), which were conveyed to the ACC, in both learning modalities. Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms underlying social fear learning, with implications for understanding common psychological dysfunctions, such as phobias and other anxiety disorders. |
2017 |
Golkar, A; Olsson, A The interplay of social group biases in social threat learning Journal Article Scientific Reports, 7 (1), pp. 7685, 2017, ISSN: 2045-2322. @article{Golkar2017, title = {The interplay of social group biases in social threat learning}, author = {A Golkar and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar-Olsson-2017-The-interplay-of-social-group-biases-in-social-threat-learning.pdf}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-017-07522-z}, issn = {2045-2322}, year = {2017}, date = {2017-08-09}, journal = {Scientific Reports}, volume = {7}, number = {1}, pages = {7685}, abstract = {Learning from other individuals (e.g. social learning) is subjected to biases affecting whom to learn from. Consistent with research in animals, showing similarity-based learning biases and a general tendency to display pro-social responses to in-group individuals, we recently demonstrated that social learning of both fear and safety was enhanced when information was transmitted between same-race individuals. Here, we addressed how two different social group categories jointly affect the transmission of fears by investigating the interplay between racial and supporter group membership. We demonstrate that supporter group membership differentially influenced learning from a racial in-group vs. racial out-group individual. Thus, conditioned skin conductance responses in the same-race condition were significantly higher when fear was transmitted by an in-group (same team) vs. an out-group (rival team) individual, and were related to supporter team identification. However, supporter group membership did not influence learning from a racial out-group demonstrator, suggesting that the presence of an alternative alliance does not necessary reduce the influence of racial biases on social fear learning.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Learning from other individuals (e.g. social learning) is subjected to biases affecting whom to learn from. Consistent with research in animals, showing similarity-based learning biases and a general tendency to display pro-social responses to in-group individuals, we recently demonstrated that social learning of both fear and safety was enhanced when information was transmitted between same-race individuals. Here, we addressed how two different social group categories jointly affect the transmission of fears by investigating the interplay between racial and supporter group membership. We demonstrate that supporter group membership differentially influenced learning from a racial in-group vs. racial out-group individual. Thus, conditioned skin conductance responses in the same-race condition were significantly higher when fear was transmitted by an in-group (same team) vs. an out-group (rival team) individual, and were related to supporter team identification. However, supporter group membership did not influence learning from a racial out-group demonstrator, suggesting that the presence of an alternative alliance does not necessary reduce the influence of racial biases on social fear learning. |
Debiec, J; Olsson, A Social fear learning: From animal models to human function Journal Article Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2017. @article{Debiec2017, title = {Social fear learning: From animal models to human function}, author = {J Debiec and A Olsson }, doi = {10.1016/j.tics.2017.04.010}, year = {2017}, date = {2017-07-01}, journal = {Trends in Cognitive Sciences}, abstract = {Learning about potential threats is critical for survival. Learned fear responses are acquired either through direct experiences or indirectly through social transmission. Social fear learning (SFL), also known as vicarious fear learning, is a paradigm successfully used for studying the transmission of threat information between individuals. Animal and human studies have begun to elucidate the behavioral, neural and molecular mechanisms of SFL. Recent research suggests that social learning mechanisms underlie a wide range of adaptive and maladaptive phenomena, from supporting flexible avoidance in dynamic environments to intergenerational transmission of trauma and anxiety disorders. This review discusses recent advances in SFL studies and their implications for basic, social and clinical sciences.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Learning about potential threats is critical for survival. Learned fear responses are acquired either through direct experiences or indirectly through social transmission. Social fear learning (SFL), also known as vicarious fear learning, is a paradigm successfully used for studying the transmission of threat information between individuals. Animal and human studies have begun to elucidate the behavioral, neural and molecular mechanisms of SFL. Recent research suggests that social learning mechanisms underlie a wide range of adaptive and maladaptive phenomena, from supporting flexible avoidance in dynamic environments to intergenerational transmission of trauma and anxiety disorders. This review discusses recent advances in SFL studies and their implications for basic, social and clinical sciences. |
Haaker, J; Golkar, A; Selbing, I; Olsson, A Assessing social transmission of threats in humans using the observational fear conditioning procedure Journal Article Nature Protocols, (12), pp. 1378–1386, 2017. @article{Haaker2017, title = {Assessing social transmission of threats in humans using the observational fear conditioning procedure}, author = {J Haaker and A Golkar and I Selbing and A Olsson}, doi = {10.1038/nprot.2017.027}, year = {2017}, date = {2017-06-15}, journal = {Nature Protocols}, number = {12}, pages = {1378\textendash1386}, abstract = {Across the human life span, fear is often acquired indirectly by observation of the emotional expressions of others. The observational fear conditioning protocol was previously developed as a laboratory model for investigating socially acquired threat responses. This protocol serves as a suitable alternative to the widely used Pavlovian fear conditioning, in which threat responses are acquired through direct experiences. In the observational fear conditioning protocol, the participant (observer) watches a demonstrator being presented with a conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). The expression of threat learning is measured as the conditioned response (CR) expressed by the observer in the absence of the demonstrator. CRs are commonly measured as skin conductance responses, but behavioral and neural measures have also been implemented. The experimental procedure is suitable for divergent populations, can be administered by a graduate student and takes ∼40 min. Similar protocols are used in animals, emphasizing its value as a translational tool for studying socioemotional learning.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Across the human life span, fear is often acquired indirectly by observation of the emotional expressions of others. The observational fear conditioning protocol was previously developed as a laboratory model for investigating socially acquired threat responses. This protocol serves as a suitable alternative to the widely used Pavlovian fear conditioning, in which threat responses are acquired through direct experiences. In the observational fear conditioning protocol, the participant (observer) watches a demonstrator being presented with a conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). The expression of threat learning is measured as the conditioned response (CR) expressed by the observer in the absence of the demonstrator. CRs are commonly measured as skin conductance responses, but behavioral and neural measures have also been implemented. The experimental procedure is suitable for divergent populations, can be administered by a graduate student and takes ∼40 min. Similar protocols are used in animals, emphasizing its value as a translational tool for studying socioemotional learning. |
Haaker, J; Yi, J; Petrovic, P; Olsson, A Endogenous opioids regulate social threat learning in humans Journal Article Nature Communications, 8 , 2017. @article{Olsson2017, title = {Endogenous opioids regulate social threat learning in humans}, author = {J Haaker and J Yi and P Petrovic and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Haaker2017.pdf}, doi = {10.1038/ncomms15495}, year = {2017}, date = {2017-05-25}, journal = {Nature Communications}, volume = {8}, abstract = {Many fearful expectations are shaped by observation of aversive outcomes to others. Yet, the neurochemistry regulating social learning is unknown. Previous research has shown that during direct (Pavlovian) threat learning, information about personally experienced outcomes is regulated by the release of endogenous opioids, and activity within the amygdala and periaqueductal gray (PAG). Here we report that blockade of this opioidergic circuit enhances social threat learning through observation in humans involving activity within the amygdala, midline thalamus and the PAG. In particular, anticipatory responses to learned threat cues (CS) were associated with temporal dynamics in the PAG, coding the observed aversive outcomes to other (observational US). In addition, pharmacological challenge of the opioid receptor function is classified by distinct brain activity patterns during the expression of conditioned threats. Our results reveal an opioidergic circuit that codes the observed aversive outcomes to others into threat responses and long-term memory in the observer.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Many fearful expectations are shaped by observation of aversive outcomes to others. Yet, the neurochemistry regulating social learning is unknown. Previous research has shown that during direct (Pavlovian) threat learning, information about personally experienced outcomes is regulated by the release of endogenous opioids, and activity within the amygdala and periaqueductal gray (PAG). Here we report that blockade of this opioidergic circuit enhances social threat learning through observation in humans involving activity within the amygdala, midline thalamus and the PAG. In particular, anticipatory responses to learned threat cues (CS) were associated with temporal dynamics in the PAG, coding the observed aversive outcomes to other (observational US). In addition, pharmacological challenge of the opioid receptor function is classified by distinct brain activity patterns during the expression of conditioned threats. Our results reveal an opioidergic circuit that codes the observed aversive outcomes to others into threat responses and long-term memory in the observer. |
2016 |
Golkar, A; Haaker, J; Selbing, I; Olsson, A Neural signals of vicarious extinction learning Journal Article Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11 (10), pp. 1541-1549, 2016. @article{Golkar2016, title = {Neural signals of vicarious extinction learning}, author = {A Golkar and J Haaker and I Selbing and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Armita_SCAN_authorscopy.pdf}, doi = {10.1093/scan/nsw068}, year = {2016}, date = {2016-02-13}, journal = {Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience}, volume = {11}, number = {10}, pages = {1541-1549}, abstract = {Social transmission of both threat and safety is ubiquitous, but little is known about the neural circuitry underlying vicarious safety learning. This is surprising given that these processes are critical to flexibly adapt to a changeable environment. To address how the expression of previously learned fears can be modified by the transmission of social information, two conditioned stimuli (CS + s) were paired with shock and the third was not. During extinction, we held constant the amount of direct, non-reinforced, exposure to the CSs (i.e. direct extinction), and critically varied whether another individual-acting as a demonstrator-experienced safety (CS + vic safety) or aversive reinforcement (CS + vic reinf). During extinction, ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) responses to the CS + vic reinf increased but decreased to the CS + vic safety This pattern of vmPFC activity was reversed during a subsequent fear reinstatement test, suggesting a temporal shift in the involvement of the vmPFC. Moreover, only the CS + vic reinf association recovered. Our data suggest that vicarious extinction prevents the return of conditioned fear responses, and that this efficacy is reflected by diminished vmPFC involvement during extinction learning. The present findings may have important implications for understanding how social information influences the persistence of fear memories in individuals suffering from emotional disorders.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Social transmission of both threat and safety is ubiquitous, but little is known about the neural circuitry underlying vicarious safety learning. This is surprising given that these processes are critical to flexibly adapt to a changeable environment. To address how the expression of previously learned fears can be modified by the transmission of social information, two conditioned stimuli (CS + s) were paired with shock and the third was not. During extinction, we held constant the amount of direct, non-reinforced, exposure to the CSs (i.e. direct extinction), and critically varied whether another individual-acting as a demonstrator-experienced safety (CS + vic safety) or aversive reinforcement (CS + vic reinf). During extinction, ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) responses to the CS + vic reinf increased but decreased to the CS + vic safety This pattern of vmPFC activity was reversed during a subsequent fear reinstatement test, suggesting a temporal shift in the involvement of the vmPFC. Moreover, only the CS + vic reinf association recovered. Our data suggest that vicarious extinction prevents the return of conditioned fear responses, and that this efficacy is reflected by diminished vmPFC involvement during extinction learning. The present findings may have important implications for understanding how social information influences the persistence of fear memories in individuals suffering from emotional disorders. |
Golkar, A; Olsson, A Immunization against social fear learning Journal Article Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145 (6), pp. 665-671, 2016. @article{Golkar2016b, title = {Immunization against social fear learning}, author = {A Golkar and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar2016b.pdf}, doi = {10.1037/xge0000173}, year = {2016}, date = {2016-01-01}, journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: General}, volume = {145}, number = {6}, pages = {665-671}, publisher = {American Psychological Association}, abstract = {Social fear learning offers an efficient way to transmit information about potential threats; little is known, however, about the learning processes that counteract the social transmission of fear. In three separate experiments, we found that safety information transmitted from another individual (i.e., demonstrator) during preexposure prevented subsequent observational fear learning (Experiments 1\textendash3), and this effect was maintained in a new context involving direct threat confrontation (Experiment 3). This protection from observational fear learning was specific to conditions in which information about both safety and danger was transmitted from the same demonstrator (Experiments 2\textendash3) and was unaffected by increasing the number of the safety demonstrators (Experiment 3). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that observational preexposure can limit social transmission of fear. Future research is needed to better understand the conditions under which such effects generalize across individual demonstrators.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Social fear learning offers an efficient way to transmit information about potential threats; little is known, however, about the learning processes that counteract the social transmission of fear. In three separate experiments, we found that safety information transmitted from another individual (i.e., demonstrator) during preexposure prevented subsequent observational fear learning (Experiments 1–3), and this effect was maintained in a new context involving direct threat confrontation (Experiment 3). This protection from observational fear learning was specific to conditions in which information about both safety and danger was transmitted from the same demonstrator (Experiments 2–3) and was unaffected by increasing the number of the safety demonstrators (Experiment 3). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that observational preexposure can limit social transmission of fear. Future research is needed to better understand the conditions under which such effects generalize across individual demonstrators. |
Olsson, A; Kopsida, E; Sorjonen, K; Savic, I Testosterone and estrogen impact social evaluations and vicarious emotions: A double-blind placebo-controlled study Journal Article Emotion, 16 (4), pp. 515-523, 2016. @article{Olsson2016b, title = {Testosterone and estrogen impact social evaluations and vicarious emotions: A double-blind placebo-controlled study}, author = {A Olsson and E Kopsida and K Sorjonen and I Savic}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Olsson_etal_testosterone2016.pdf}, doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039765}, year = {2016}, date = {2016-01-01}, journal = {Emotion}, volume = {16}, number = {4}, pages = {515-523}, abstract = {The abilities to "read" other peoples' intentions and emotions, and to learn from their experiences, are critical to survival. Previous studies have highlighted the role of sex hormones, notably testosterone and estrogen, in these processes. Yet it is unclear how these hormones affect social cognition and emotion using acute hormonal administration. In the present double-blind placebo-controlled study, we administered an acute exogenous dose of testosterone or estrogen to healthy female and male volunteers, respectively, with the aim of investigating the effects of these steroids on social-cognitive and emotional processes. Following hormonal and placebo treatment, participants made (a) facial dominance judgments, (b) mental state inferences (Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test), and (c) learned aversive associations through watching others' emotional responses (observational fear learning [OFL]). Our results showed that testosterone administration to females enhanced ratings of facial dominance but diminished their accuracy in inferring mental states. In men, estrogen administration resulted in an increase in emotional (vicarious) reactivity when watching a distressed other during the OFL task. Taken together, these results suggest that sex hormones affect social-cognitive and emotional functions at several levels, linking our results to neuropsychiatric disorders in which these functions are impaired}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } The abilities to "read" other peoples' intentions and emotions, and to learn from their experiences, are critical to survival. Previous studies have highlighted the role of sex hormones, notably testosterone and estrogen, in these processes. Yet it is unclear how these hormones affect social cognition and emotion using acute hormonal administration. In the present double-blind placebo-controlled study, we administered an acute exogenous dose of testosterone or estrogen to healthy female and male volunteers, respectively, with the aim of investigating the effects of these steroids on social-cognitive and emotional processes. Following hormonal and placebo treatment, participants made (a) facial dominance judgments, (b) mental state inferences (Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test), and (c) learned aversive associations through watching others' emotional responses (observational fear learning [OFL]). Our results showed that testosterone administration to females enhanced ratings of facial dominance but diminished their accuracy in inferring mental states. In men, estrogen administration resulted in an increase in emotional (vicarious) reactivity when watching a distressed other during the OFL task. Taken together, these results suggest that sex hormones affect social-cognitive and emotional functions at several levels, linking our results to neuropsychiatric disorders in which these functions are impaired |
Olsson, A; McMahon, K; Papenberg, G; Zaki, J; Bolger, N; Ochsner, K N Vicarious fear learning depends on empathic appraisals and trait empathy Journal Article Psychological Science, 27 (1), pp. 25-33, 2016, (PMID: 26637357). @article{Olsson2016, title = {Vicarious fear learning depends on empathic appraisals and trait empathy}, author = {A Olsson and K McMahon and G Papenberg and J Zaki and N Bolger and K N Ochsner}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Olsson2016.pdf}, doi = {10.1177/0956797615604124}, year = {2016}, date = {2016-01-01}, journal = {Psychological Science}, volume = {27}, number = {1}, pages = {25-33}, abstract = {Empathy and vicarious learning of fear are increasingly understood as separate phenomena, but the interaction between the two remains poorly understood. We investigated how social (vicarious) fear learning is affected by empathic appraisals by asking participants to either enhance or decrease their empathic responses to another individual (the demonstrator), who received electric shocks paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus. A third group of participants received no appraisal instructions and responded naturally to the demonstrator. During a later test, participants who had enhanced their empathy evinced the strongest vicarious fear learning as measured by skin conductance responses to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the demonstrator. Moreover, this effect was augmented in observers high in trait empathy. Our results suggest that a demonstrator’s expression can serve as a “social” unconditioned stimulus (US), similar to a personally experienced US in Pavlovian fear conditioning, and that learning from a social US depends on both empathic appraisals and the observers’ stable traits.}, note = {PMID: 26637357}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Empathy and vicarious learning of fear are increasingly understood as separate phenomena, but the interaction between the two remains poorly understood. We investigated how social (vicarious) fear learning is affected by empathic appraisals by asking participants to either enhance or decrease their empathic responses to another individual (the demonstrator), who received electric shocks paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus. A third group of participants received no appraisal instructions and responded naturally to the demonstrator. During a later test, participants who had enhanced their empathy evinced the strongest vicarious fear learning as measured by skin conductance responses to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the demonstrator. Moreover, this effect was augmented in observers high in trait empathy. Our results suggest that a demonstrator’s expression can serve as a “social” unconditioned stimulus (US), similar to a personally experienced US in Pavlovian fear conditioning, and that learning from a social US depends on both empathic appraisals and the observers’ stable traits. |
2015 |
Kleberg, J L; Selbing, I; Lundqvist, D; Hofvander, B; Olsson, A Spontaneous eye movements and trait empathy predict vicarious learning of fear Journal Article International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98 (3), pp. 577–583, 2015. @article{Kleberg2015, title = {Spontaneous eye movements and trait empathy predict vicarious learning of fear}, author = {J L Kleberg and I Selbing and D Lundqvist and B Hofvander and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Kleberg-et-al-2015-1.pdf}, doi = {10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.001}, year = {2015}, date = {2015-04-11}, journal = {International Journal of Psychophysiology}, volume = {98}, number = {3}, pages = {577--583}, abstract = {Learning to predict dangerous outcomes is important to survival. In humans, this kind of learning is often transmitted through the observation of others' emotional responses. We analyzed eye movements during an observational/vicarious fear learning procedure, in which healthy participants (N = 33) watched another individual (‘learning model’) receiving aversive treatment (shocks) paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus (CS +), but not a control stimulus (CS −). Participants' gaze pattern towards the model differentiated as a function of whether the CS was predictive or not of a shock to the model. Consistent with our hypothesis that the face of a conspecific in distress can act as an unconditioned stimulus (US), we found that the total fixation time at a learning model's face increased when the CS + was shown. Furthermore, we found that the total fixation time at the CS + during learning predicted participants' conditioned responses (CRs) at a later test in the absence of the model. We also demonstrated that trait empathy was associated with stronger CRs, and that autistic traits were positively related to autonomic reactions to watching the model receiving the aversive treatment. Our results have implications for both healthy and dysfunctional socio-emotional learning.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Learning to predict dangerous outcomes is important to survival. In humans, this kind of learning is often transmitted through the observation of others' emotional responses. We analyzed eye movements during an observational/vicarious fear learning procedure, in which healthy participants (N = 33) watched another individual (‘learning model’) receiving aversive treatment (shocks) paired with a predictive conditioned stimulus (CS +), but not a control stimulus (CS −). Participants' gaze pattern towards the model differentiated as a function of whether the CS was predictive or not of a shock to the model. Consistent with our hypothesis that the face of a conspecific in distress can act as an unconditioned stimulus (US), we found that the total fixation time at a learning model's face increased when the CS + was shown. Furthermore, we found that the total fixation time at the CS + during learning predicted participants' conditioned responses (CRs) at a later test in the absence of the model. We also demonstrated that trait empathy was associated with stronger CRs, and that autistic traits were positively related to autonomic reactions to watching the model receiving the aversive treatment. Our results have implications for both healthy and dysfunctional socio-emotional learning. |
Golkar, A; Castro, V; Olsson, A Social learning of fear and safety is determined by the demonstrator's racial group Journal Article Biology Letters, 11 (1), 2015. @article{Golkar2015, title = {Social learning of fear and safety is determined by the demonstrator's racial group}, author = {A Golkar and V Castro and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar2015.pdf}, doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2014.0817}, year = {2015}, date = {2015-01-28}, journal = {Biology Letters}, volume = {11}, number = {1}, abstract = {Social learning offers an efficient route through which humans and other animals learn about potential dangers in the environment. Such learning inherently relies on the transmission of social information and should imply selectivity in what to learn from whom. Here, we conducted two observational learning experiments to assess how humans learn about danger and safety from members (‘demonstrators') of an other social group than their own. We show that both fear and safety learning from a racial in-group demonstrator was more potent than learning from a racial out-group demonstrator.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Social learning offers an efficient route through which humans and other animals learn about potential dangers in the environment. Such learning inherently relies on the transmission of social information and should imply selectivity in what to learn from whom. Here, we conducted two observational learning experiments to assess how humans learn about danger and safety from members (‘demonstrators') of an other social group than their own. We show that both fear and safety learning from a racial in-group demonstrator was more potent than learning from a racial out-group demonstrator. |
2013 |
Golkar, A; Selbing, I; Flygare, O; Öhman, A; Olsson, A Other people as means to a safe end Journal Article Psychological Science, 24 (11), pp. 2182-2190, 2013. @article{Golkar2013, title = {Other people as means to a safe end}, author = {A Golkar and I Selbing and O Flygare and A \"{O}hman and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Golkar2013.pdf}, doi = {10.1177/0956797613489890}, year = {2013}, date = {2013-09-10}, journal = {Psychological Science}, volume = {24}, number = {11}, pages = {2182-2190}, abstract = {Information about what is dangerous and safe in the environment is often transferred from other individuals through social forms of learning, such as observation. Past research has focused on the observational, or vicarious, acquisition of fears, but little is known about how social information can promote safety learning. To address this issue, we studied the effects of vicarious-extinction learning on the recovery of conditioned fear. Compared with a standard extinction procedure, vicarious extinction promoted better extinction and effectively blocked the return of previously learned fear. We confirmed that these effects could not be attributed to the presence of a learning model per se but were specifically driven by the model’s experience of safety. Our results confirm that vicarious and direct emotional learning share important characteristics but that social-safety information promotes superior down-regulation of learned fear. These findings have implications for emotional learning, social-affective processes, and clinical practice.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Information about what is dangerous and safe in the environment is often transferred from other individuals through social forms of learning, such as observation. Past research has focused on the observational, or vicarious, acquisition of fears, but little is known about how social information can promote safety learning. To address this issue, we studied the effects of vicarious-extinction learning on the recovery of conditioned fear. Compared with a standard extinction procedure, vicarious extinction promoted better extinction and effectively blocked the return of previously learned fear. We confirmed that these effects could not be attributed to the presence of a learning model per se but were specifically driven by the model’s experience of safety. Our results confirm that vicarious and direct emotional learning share important characteristics but that social-safety information promotes superior down-regulation of learned fear. These findings have implications for emotional learning, social-affective processes, and clinical practice. |
2007 |
Olsson, A; Phelps, E A Social learning of fear Journal Article Nature Neuroscience, 10 (9), pp. 1095–1102, 2007, ISSN: 1097-6256. @article{Olsson2007b, title = {Social learning of fear}, author = {A Olsson and E A Phelps}, doi = {10.1038/nn1968}, issn = {1097-6256}, year = {2007}, date = {2007-09-01}, journal = {Nature Neuroscience}, volume = {10}, number = {9}, pages = {1095--1102}, abstract = {Research across species highlights the critical role of the amygdala in fear conditioning. However, fear conditioning, involving direct aversive experience, is only one means by which fears can be acquired. Exploiting aversive experiences of other individuals through social fear learning is less risky. Behavioral research provides important insights into the workings of social fear learning, and the neural mechanisms are beginning to be understood. We review research suggesting that an amygdala-centered model of fear conditioning can help to explain social learning of fear through observation and instruction. We also describe how observational and instructed fear is distinguished by involvement of additional neural systems implicated in social-emotional behavior, language and explicit memory, and propose a modified conditioning model to account for social fear learning. A better understanding of social fear learning promotes integration of biological principles of learning with cultural evolution.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Research across species highlights the critical role of the amygdala in fear conditioning. However, fear conditioning, involving direct aversive experience, is only one means by which fears can be acquired. Exploiting aversive experiences of other individuals through social fear learning is less risky. Behavioral research provides important insights into the workings of social fear learning, and the neural mechanisms are beginning to be understood. We review research suggesting that an amygdala-centered model of fear conditioning can help to explain social learning of fear through observation and instruction. We also describe how observational and instructed fear is distinguished by involvement of additional neural systems implicated in social-emotional behavior, language and explicit memory, and propose a modified conditioning model to account for social fear learning. A better understanding of social fear learning promotes integration of biological principles of learning with cultural evolution. |
Olsson, A; Nearing, K I; Phelps, E A Learning fears by observing others: the neural systems of social fear transmission Journal Article Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2 (1), pp. 3–11, 2007, ISSN: 1749-5016. @article{Olsson2007a, title = {Learning fears by observing others: the neural systems of social fear transmission}, author = {A Olsson and K I Nearing and E A Phelps}, doi = {10.1093/scan/nsm005}, issn = {1749-5016}, year = {2007}, date = {2007-03-01}, journal = {Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience}, volume = {2}, number = {1}, pages = {3--11}, abstract = {Classical fear conditioning has been used as a model paradigm to explain fear learning across species. In this paradigm, the amygdala is known to play a critical role. However, classical fear conditioning requires first-hand experience with an aversive event, which may not be how most fears are acquired in humans. It remains to be determined whether the conditioning model can be extended to indirect forms of learning more common in humans. Here we show that fear acquired indirectly through social observation, with no personal experience of the aversive event, engages similar neural mechanisms as fear conditioning. The amygdala was recruited both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in an analogous situation. These findings confirm the central role of the amygdala in the acquisition and expression of observational fear learning, and validate the extension of cross-species models of fear conditioning to learning in a human sociocultural context. Our findings also provides new insights into the relationship between learning from, and empathizing with, fearful others. This study suggests that indirectly attained fears may be as powerful as fears originating from direct experiences.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Classical fear conditioning has been used as a model paradigm to explain fear learning across species. In this paradigm, the amygdala is known to play a critical role. However, classical fear conditioning requires first-hand experience with an aversive event, which may not be how most fears are acquired in humans. It remains to be determined whether the conditioning model can be extended to indirect forms of learning more common in humans. Here we show that fear acquired indirectly through social observation, with no personal experience of the aversive event, engages similar neural mechanisms as fear conditioning. The amygdala was recruited both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in an analogous situation. These findings confirm the central role of the amygdala in the acquisition and expression of observational fear learning, and validate the extension of cross-species models of fear conditioning to learning in a human sociocultural context. Our findings also provides new insights into the relationship between learning from, and empathizing with, fearful others. This study suggests that indirectly attained fears may be as powerful as fears originating from direct experiences. |
2004 |
Olsson, A; Phelps, E A Learned fear of “unseen” faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear Journal Article Psychological Science, 15 (12), pp. 822–828, 2004, ISSN: 0956-7976. @article{Olsson2004, title = {Learned fear of “unseen” faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear}, author = {A Olsson and E A Phelps}, doi = {10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00762.x}, issn = {0956-7976}, year = {2004}, date = {2004-12-01}, journal = {Psychological Science}, volume = {15}, number = {12}, pages = {822--828}, abstract = {This study compared fear learning acquired through direct experience (Pavlovian conditioning) and fear learning acquired without direct experience via either observation or verbal instruction. We examined whether these three types of learning yielded differential responses to conditioned stimuli (CS+) that were presented unmasked (available to explicit awareness) or masked (not available to explicit awareness). In the Pavlovian group, the CS+ was paired with a mild shock, whereas the observational-learning group learned through observing the emotional expression of a confederate receiving shocks paired with the CS+. The instructed-learning group was told that the CS+ predicted a shock. The three groups demonstrated similar levels of learning as measured by the skin conductance response to unmasked stimuli. As in previous studies, participants also displayed a significant learning response to masked stimuli following Pavlovian conditioning. However, whereas the observational-learning group also showed this effect, the instructed-learning group did not.}, keywords = {}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } This study compared fear learning acquired through direct experience (Pavlovian conditioning) and fear learning acquired without direct experience via either observation or verbal instruction. We examined whether these three types of learning yielded differential responses to conditioned stimuli (CS+) that were presented unmasked (available to explicit awareness) or masked (not available to explicit awareness). In the Pavlovian group, the CS+ was paired with a mild shock, whereas the observational-learning group learned through observing the emotional expression of a confederate receiving shocks paired with the CS+. The instructed-learning group was told that the CS+ predicted a shock. The three groups demonstrated similar levels of learning as measured by the skin conductance response to unmasked stimuli. As in previous studies, participants also displayed a significant learning response to masked stimuli following Pavlovian conditioning. However, whereas the observational-learning group also showed this effect, the instructed-learning group did not. |