2021 |
Haaker, J; Diaz-Mataix, L; Guillazo-Blanch, G; Stark, S A; Kern, L; LeDoux, J; Olsson, A Observation of others’ threat reactions recovers memories previously shaped by firsthand experiences Journal Article PNAS, 118 (30), 2021. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: reinstatment, Social learning, threat conditioning, Vicarious learning @article{Haaker2021, title = {Observation of others’ threat reactions recovers memories previously shaped by firsthand experiences}, author = {J Haaker and L Diaz-Mataix and G Guillazo-Blanch and S A Stark and L Kern and J LeDoux and A Olsson}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101290118}, year = {2021}, date = {2021-07-27}, journal = {PNAS}, volume = {118}, number = {30}, abstract = {Information about dangers can spread effectively by observation of others’ threat responses. Yet, it is unclear if such observational threat information interacts with associative memories that are shaped by the individual’s direct, firsthand experiences. Here, we show in humans and rats that the mere observation of a conspecific’s threat reactions reinstates previously learned and extinguished threat responses in the observer. In two experiments, human participants displayed elevated physiological responses to threat-conditioned cues after observational reinstatement in a context-specific manner. The elevation of physiological responses (arousal) was further specific to the context that was observed as dangerous. An analogous experiment in rats provided converging results by demonstrating reinstatement of defensive behavior after observing another rat’s threat reactions. Taken together, our findings provide cross-species evidence that observation of others’ threat reactions can recover associations previously shaped by direct, firsthand aversive experiences. Our study offers a perspective on how retrieval of threat memories draws from associative mechanisms that might underlie both observations of others’ and firsthand experiences.}, keywords = {reinstatment, Social learning, threat conditioning, Vicarious learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Information about dangers can spread effectively by observation of others’ threat responses. Yet, it is unclear if such observational threat information interacts with associative memories that are shaped by the individual’s direct, firsthand experiences. Here, we show in humans and rats that the mere observation of a conspecific’s threat reactions reinstates previously learned and extinguished threat responses in the observer. In two experiments, human participants displayed elevated physiological responses to threat-conditioned cues after observational reinstatement in a context-specific manner. The elevation of physiological responses (arousal) was further specific to the context that was observed as dangerous. An analogous experiment in rats provided converging results by demonstrating reinstatement of defensive behavior after observing another rat’s threat reactions. Taken together, our findings provide cross-species evidence that observation of others’ threat reactions can recover associations previously shaped by direct, firsthand aversive experiences. Our study offers a perspective on how retrieval of threat memories draws from associative mechanisms that might underlie both observations of others’ and firsthand experiences. |
Lebedev, A V; Acar, K; Garzón, B; Almeida, R; Råback, J; Åberg, A; Martinsson, S; Olsson, A; Louzolo, A; Pärnamets, P; Lövden, M; Atlas, L; Ingvar, M; Petrovic, P Psychedelic drug use and schizotypy in young adults Journal Article Scientific Reports, 11 (15058), 2021. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Aversive fear reversal learning, psychedelics, psychosis @article{Lebedev2021, title = {Psychedelic drug use and schizotypy in young adults}, author = {A V Lebedev and K Acar and B Garz\'{o}n and R Almeida and J Rr{a}back and A r{A}berg and S Martinsson and A Olsson and A Louzolo and P P\"{a}rnamets and M L\"{o}vden and L Atlas and M Ingvar and P Petrovic}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94421-z}, year = {2021}, date = {2021-07-23}, journal = {Scientific Reports}, volume = {11}, number = {15058}, abstract = {Despite recently resurrected scientific interest in classical psychedelics, few studies have focused on potential harms associated with abuse of these substances. In particular, the link between psychedelic use and psychotic symptoms has been debated while no conclusive evidence has been presented. Here, we studied an adult population (n = 1032) with a special focus on young (18\textendash35 years) and healthy individuals (n = 701) to evaluate the association of psychedelic drug use with schizotypy and evidence integration impairment typically observed in psychosis-spectrum disorders. Experimental behavioural testing was performed in a subsample of the subjects (n = 39). We observed higher schizotypy scores in psychedelic users in the total sample. However, the effect size was notably small and only marginally significant when considering young and healthy subjects (Cohen’s d = 0.13). Controlling for concomitant drug use, none of our analyses found significant associations between psychedelic use and schizotypal traits. Results from experimental testing showed that total exposure to psychedelics (frequency and temporal proximity of use) was associated with better evidence integration (Cohen’s d = 0.13) and a higher sensitivity of fear responses (Cohen’s d = 1.05) to the effects instructed knowledge in a reversal aversive learning task modelled computationally with skin conductance response and pupillometry. This effect was present even when controlling for demographics and concomitant drug use. On a group level, however, only difference in sensitivity of fear responses to instructed knowledge reached statistical significance. Taken together, our findings suggest that psychedelic drug use is only weakly associated with psychosis-like symptoms, which, in turn, is to a large extent explained by psychiatric comorbidities and use of other psychoactive substances. Our results also suggest that psychedelics may have an effect on flexibility of evidence integration and aversive learning processes, that may be linked to recently suggested therapeutic effects of psychedelic drugs in non-psychotic psychiatric populations.}, keywords = {Aversive fear reversal learning, psychedelics, psychosis}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Despite recently resurrected scientific interest in classical psychedelics, few studies have focused on potential harms associated with abuse of these substances. In particular, the link between psychedelic use and psychotic symptoms has been debated while no conclusive evidence has been presented. Here, we studied an adult population (n = 1032) with a special focus on young (18–35 years) and healthy individuals (n = 701) to evaluate the association of psychedelic drug use with schizotypy and evidence integration impairment typically observed in psychosis-spectrum disorders. Experimental behavioural testing was performed in a subsample of the subjects (n = 39). We observed higher schizotypy scores in psychedelic users in the total sample. However, the effect size was notably small and only marginally significant when considering young and healthy subjects (Cohen’s d = 0.13). Controlling for concomitant drug use, none of our analyses found significant associations between psychedelic use and schizotypal traits. Results from experimental testing showed that total exposure to psychedelics (frequency and temporal proximity of use) was associated with better evidence integration (Cohen’s d = 0.13) and a higher sensitivity of fear responses (Cohen’s d = 1.05) to the effects instructed knowledge in a reversal aversive learning task modelled computationally with skin conductance response and pupillometry. This effect was present even when controlling for demographics and concomitant drug use. On a group level, however, only difference in sensitivity of fear responses to instructed knowledge reached statistical significance. Taken together, our findings suggest that psychedelic drug use is only weakly associated with psychosis-like symptoms, which, in turn, is to a large extent explained by psychiatric comorbidities and use of other psychoactive substances. Our results also suggest that psychedelics may have an effect on flexibility of evidence integration and aversive learning processes, that may be linked to recently suggested therapeutic effects of psychedelic drugs in non-psychotic psychiatric populations. |
Yi, J; Pärnamets, P; Olsson, A The face value of feedback: facial behaviour is shaped by goals and punishments during interaction with dynamic faces Journal Article Royal Society Open Science, 8 (7), 2021. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: avoidance learning, decision-making, electromyography, facial expression @article{Yi2021, title = {The face value of feedback: facial behaviour is shaped by goals and punishments during interaction with dynamic faces}, author = {J Yi and P P\"{a}rnamets and A Olsson}, doi = {10.1098/rsos.202159}, year = {2021}, date = {2021-07-14}, journal = {Royal Society Open Science}, volume = {8}, number = {7}, abstract = {Responding appropriately to others' facial expressions is key to successful social functioning. Despite the large body of work on face perception and spontaneous responses to static faces, little is known about responses to faces in dynamic, naturalistic situations, and no study has investigated how goal directed responses to faces are influenced by learning during dyadic interactions. To experimentally model such situations, we developed a novel method based on online integration of electromyography signals from the participants’ face (corrugator supercilii and zygomaticus major) during facial expression exchange with dynamic faces displaying happy and angry facial expressions. Fifty-eight participants learned by trial-and-error to avoid receiving aversive stimulation by either reciprocate (congruently) or respond opposite (incongruently) to the expression of the target face. Our results validated our method, showing that participants learned to optimize their facial behaviour, and replicated earlier findings of faster and more accurate responses in congruent versus incongruent conditions. Moreover, participants performed better on trials when confronted with smiling, when compared with frowning, faces, suggesting it might be easier to adapt facial responses to positively associated expressions. Finally, we applied drift diffusion and reinforcement learning models to provide a mechanistic explanation for our findings which helped clarifying the underlying decision-making processes of our experimental manipulation. Our results introduce a new method to study learning and decision-making in facial expression exchange, in which there is a need to gradually adapt facial expression selection to both social and non-social reinforcements.}, keywords = {avoidance learning, decision-making, electromyography, facial expression}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Responding appropriately to others' facial expressions is key to successful social functioning. Despite the large body of work on face perception and spontaneous responses to static faces, little is known about responses to faces in dynamic, naturalistic situations, and no study has investigated how goal directed responses to faces are influenced by learning during dyadic interactions. To experimentally model such situations, we developed a novel method based on online integration of electromyography signals from the participants’ face (corrugator supercilii and zygomaticus major) during facial expression exchange with dynamic faces displaying happy and angry facial expressions. Fifty-eight participants learned by trial-and-error to avoid receiving aversive stimulation by either reciprocate (congruently) or respond opposite (incongruently) to the expression of the target face. Our results validated our method, showing that participants learned to optimize their facial behaviour, and replicated earlier findings of faster and more accurate responses in congruent versus incongruent conditions. Moreover, participants performed better on trials when confronted with smiling, when compared with frowning, faces, suggesting it might be easier to adapt facial responses to positively associated expressions. Finally, we applied drift diffusion and reinforcement learning models to provide a mechanistic explanation for our findings which helped clarifying the underlying decision-making processes of our experimental manipulation. Our results introduce a new method to study learning and decision-making in facial expression exchange, in which there is a need to gradually adapt facial expression selection to both social and non-social reinforcements. |
Pan, Y; Novembre, G; Olsson, A The interpersonal neuroscience of social learning Journal Article Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2021. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Brain-tobrain coupling, Causation, interpersonal neuroscience, machine learning, Preprint, Social learning @article{Pan2021, title = {The interpersonal neuroscience of social learning}, author = {Y Pan and G Novembre and A Olsson}, url = {https://psyarxiv.com/p386k/}, year = {2021}, date = {2021-04-20}, journal = {Perspectives on Psychological Science}, abstract = {The study of the brain mechanisms underpinning social behavior is currently undergoing a paradigm shift, moving its focus from single individuals to the real-time interaction among groups of individuals. Although this development opens unprecedented opportunities to study how interpersonal brain activity shapes behaviors through learning, there have been few direct connections to the rich field of learning science. Our paper examines how the rapidly developing field of interpersonal neuroscience is (and could be) contributing to our understanding of social learning. To this end, we first review recent research extracting indices of brain-to-brain coupling (BtBC) in the context of social behaviors, and in particular social learning. We then discuss how studying communicative behaviors during learning can aid the interpretation of BtBC, and how studying BtBC can inform our understanding of such behaviors. Importantly, we then discuss how BtBC and communicative behaviors collectively can predict learning outcomes, suggesting several causative and mechanistic models. Finally, we highlight key methodological and interpretational challenges, as well as exciting opportunities for integrating research in interpersonal neuroscience with social learning, and propose a multi-person framework for understanding how interpersonal transmission of information between individual brains shapes social learning.}, keywords = {Brain-tobrain coupling, Causation, interpersonal neuroscience, machine learning, Preprint, Social learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } The study of the brain mechanisms underpinning social behavior is currently undergoing a paradigm shift, moving its focus from single individuals to the real-time interaction among groups of individuals. Although this development opens unprecedented opportunities to study how interpersonal brain activity shapes behaviors through learning, there have been few direct connections to the rich field of learning science. Our paper examines how the rapidly developing field of interpersonal neuroscience is (and could be) contributing to our understanding of social learning. To this end, we first review recent research extracting indices of brain-to-brain coupling (BtBC) in the context of social behaviors, and in particular social learning. We then discuss how studying communicative behaviors during learning can aid the interpretation of BtBC, and how studying BtBC can inform our understanding of such behaviors. Importantly, we then discuss how BtBC and communicative behaviors collectively can predict learning outcomes, suggesting several causative and mechanistic models. Finally, we highlight key methodological and interpretational challenges, as well as exciting opportunities for integrating research in interpersonal neuroscience with social learning, and propose a multi-person framework for understanding how interpersonal transmission of information between individual brains shapes social learning. |
2020 |
Pan, Y; Olsson, A; Golkar, A Social safety learning: Shared safety abolishes the recovery of learned threat Journal Article Behaviour Research and Therapy, 135 , pp. 103733, 2020. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Recovery, Shared safety, Social interaction, Social learning, Threat @article{Pan2020, title = {Social safety learning: Shared safety abolishes the recovery of learned threat}, author = {Y Pan and A Olsson and A Golkar}, doi = {10.1016/j.brat.2020.103733}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-12-01}, journal = {Behaviour Research and Therapy}, volume = {135}, pages = {103733}, abstract = {Humans, like other social animals, learn about threats and safety in the environment through social cues. Yet, the processes that contribute to the efficacy of social safety learning during threat transmission remain unknown. Here, we developed a novel dyadic model of associative threat and extinction learning. In three separate social groups, we manipulated whether safety information during extinction was acquired via direct exposure to the conditioned stimulus (CS) in the presence of another individual (Direct exposure), via observation of other's safety behavior (Vicarious exposure), or via the combination of both (Shared exposure).These groups were contrasted against a fourth group receiving direct CS exposure alone (Asocial exposure). Based on skin conductance responses, we observed that all social groups outperformed asocial learning in inhibiting the recovery of threat, but only Shared exposure abolished threat recovery. These results suggest that social safety learning is optimized by a combination of direct exposure and vicariously transmitted safety signals. This work might help develop exposure therapies used to treat symptoms of threat and anxiety-related disorders to counteract maladaptive fears in humans.}, keywords = {Recovery, Shared safety, Social interaction, Social learning, Threat}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Humans, like other social animals, learn about threats and safety in the environment through social cues. Yet, the processes that contribute to the efficacy of social safety learning during threat transmission remain unknown. Here, we developed a novel dyadic model of associative threat and extinction learning. In three separate social groups, we manipulated whether safety information during extinction was acquired via direct exposure to the conditioned stimulus (CS) in the presence of another individual (Direct exposure), via observation of other's safety behavior (Vicarious exposure), or via the combination of both (Shared exposure).These groups were contrasted against a fourth group receiving direct CS exposure alone (Asocial exposure). Based on skin conductance responses, we observed that all social groups outperformed asocial learning in inhibiting the recovery of threat, but only Shared exposure abolished threat recovery. These results suggest that social safety learning is optimized by a combination of direct exposure and vicariously transmitted safety signals. This work might help develop exposure therapies used to treat symptoms of threat and anxiety-related disorders to counteract maladaptive fears in humans. |
Szczepanik, M; Kaźmierowska, A M; Michałowski, J M; Wypych, M; Olsson, A; Knapska, E Observational learning of fear in real time procedure Journal Article Scientific Reports, 10 , 2020. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Obsfear procedure, Social learning @article{Szczepanik2020b, title = {Observational learning of fear in real time procedure}, author = {M Szczepanik and A M Ka\'{z}mierowska and J M Micha\lowski and M Wypych and A Olsson and E Knapska}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74113-w}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-10-12}, journal = {Scientific Reports}, volume = {10}, abstract = {Learning to avoid threats often occurs by observing others. Most previous research on observational fear learning (OFL) in humans has used pre-recorded standardized video of an actor and thus lacked ecological validity. Here, we aimed to enhance ecological validity of the OFL by engaging participants in a real-time observational procedure (35 pairs of healthy male friends, age 18\textendash27). One of the participants watched the other undergo a differential fear conditioning task, in which a conditioned stimulus (CS+) was paired with an aversive electric shock and another stimulus (CS−) was always safe. Subsequently, the CS+ and CS− were presented to the observer to test the OFL. While the friend’s reactions to the shock elicited strong skin conductance responses (SCR) in all observers, subsequent differential SCRs (CS+ > CS−) were found only when declarative knowledge of the CS+/US contingency (rated by the participants) was acquired. Contingency-aware observers also showed elevated fear potentiated startle responses during both CS+ and CS− compared to baseline. We conclude that our real-time procedure can be effectively used to study OFL. The procedure allowed for dissecting two components of the OFL: an automatic emotional reaction to the response of the demonstrator and learning about stimulus contingency.}, keywords = {Obsfear procedure, Social learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Learning to avoid threats often occurs by observing others. Most previous research on observational fear learning (OFL) in humans has used pre-recorded standardized video of an actor and thus lacked ecological validity. Here, we aimed to enhance ecological validity of the OFL by engaging participants in a real-time observational procedure (35 pairs of healthy male friends, age 18–27). One of the participants watched the other undergo a differential fear conditioning task, in which a conditioned stimulus (CS+) was paired with an aversive electric shock and another stimulus (CS−) was always safe. Subsequently, the CS+ and CS− were presented to the observer to test the OFL. While the friend’s reactions to the shock elicited strong skin conductance responses (SCR) in all observers, subsequent differential SCRs (CS+ > CS−) were found only when declarative knowledge of the CS+/US contingency (rated by the participants) was acquired. Contingency-aware observers also showed elevated fear potentiated startle responses during both CS+ and CS− compared to baseline. We conclude that our real-time procedure can be effectively used to study OFL. The procedure allowed for dissecting two components of the OFL: an automatic emotional reaction to the response of the demonstrator and learning about stimulus contingency. |
Espinosa, L; Kleberg, Lundin J; Hofvander, B; Berggren, S; Bölte, S; Olsson, A Enhanced social learning of threat in adults with autism Journal Article Molecular Autism, 11 (71), 2020. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Anxiety, Attention, Autism, Eye tracking, Skin conductance, Social cognition, Social fear learning, Vicarious threat @article{Espinosa2020, title = {Enhanced social learning of threat in adults with autism}, author = {L Espinosa and J Lundin Kleberg and B Hofvander and S Berggren and S B\"{o}lte and A Olsson}, url = {https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1186/s13229-020-00375-w}, doi = {10.1186/s13229-020-00375-w}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-09-24}, journal = {Molecular Autism}, volume = {11}, number = {71}, abstract = {Background: Recent theories have linked autism to challenges in prediction learning and social cognition. It is unknown, however, how autism affects learning about threats from others “demonstrators” through observation, which contains predictive learning based on social information. The aims of this study are therefore to investigate social fear learning in individual with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and to examine whether typically developing social cognition is necessary for successful observational learning. Methods: Adults with ASD (n = 23) and neurotypical controls (n = 25) completed a social fear learning (SFL) procedure in which participants watched a “demonstrator” receiving electrical shocks in conjunction with a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS+), but never with a safe control stimulus (CS−). Skin conductance was used to measure autonomic responses of learned threat responses to the CS+ versus CS−. Visual attention was measured during learning using eye tracking. To establish a non-social learning baseline, each participant also underwent a test of Pavlovian conditioning. Results: During learning, individuals with ASD attended less to the demonstrator’s face, and when later tested, displayed stronger observational, but not Pavlovian, autonomic indices of learning (skin conductance) compared to controls. In controls, both higher levels of attention to the demonstrator’s face and trait empathy predicted diminished expressions of learning during test. Limitations: The relatively small sample size of this study and the typical IQ range of the ASD group limit the generalizability of our findings to individuals with ASD in the average intellectual ability range. Conclusions: The enhanced social threat learning in individuals with ASD may be linked to difficulties using visual attention and mental state attributions to downregulate their emotion.}, keywords = {Anxiety, Attention, Autism, Eye tracking, Skin conductance, Social cognition, Social fear learning, Vicarious threat}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Background: Recent theories have linked autism to challenges in prediction learning and social cognition. It is unknown, however, how autism affects learning about threats from others “demonstrators” through observation, which contains predictive learning based on social information. The aims of this study are therefore to investigate social fear learning in individual with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and to examine whether typically developing social cognition is necessary for successful observational learning. Methods: Adults with ASD (n = 23) and neurotypical controls (n = 25) completed a social fear learning (SFL) procedure in which participants watched a “demonstrator” receiving electrical shocks in conjunction with a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS+), but never with a safe control stimulus (CS−). Skin conductance was used to measure autonomic responses of learned threat responses to the CS+ versus CS−. Visual attention was measured during learning using eye tracking. To establish a non-social learning baseline, each participant also underwent a test of Pavlovian conditioning. Results: During learning, individuals with ASD attended less to the demonstrator’s face, and when later tested, displayed stronger observational, but not Pavlovian, autonomic indices of learning (skin conductance) compared to controls. In controls, both higher levels of attention to the demonstrator’s face and trait empathy predicted diminished expressions of learning during test. Limitations: The relatively small sample size of this study and the typical IQ range of the ASD group limit the generalizability of our findings to individuals with ASD in the average intellectual ability range. Conclusions: The enhanced social threat learning in individuals with ASD may be linked to difficulties using visual attention and mental state attributions to downregulate their emotion. |
Pärnamets, P; Olsson, A Integration of social cues and individual experiences during instrumental avoidance learning Journal Article PLOS Computational Biology, 16 (9), pp. e1008163, 2020. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Autism, Decision making, Emotions, Facial expressions, Fear, Fractals, Human learning, Learning @article{P\"{a}rnamets2020b, title = {Integration of social cues and individual experiences during instrumental avoidance learning}, author = {P P\"{a}rnamets and A Olsson}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008163}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-09-08}, journal = {PLOS Computational Biology}, volume = {16}, number = {9}, pages = {e1008163}, abstract = {Learning to avoid harmful consequences can be a costly trial-and-error process. In such situations, social information can be leveraged to improve individual learning outcomes. Here, we investigated how participants used their own experiences and others’ social cues to avoid harm. Participants made repeated choices between harmful and safe options, each with different probabilities of generating shocks, while also seeing the image of a social partner. Some partners made predictive gaze cues towards the harmful choice option while others cued an option at random, and did so using neutral or fearful facial expressions. We tested how learned social information about partner reliability transferred across contexts by letting participants encounter the same partner in multiple trial blocks while facing novel choice options. Participants’ decisions were best explained by a reinforcement learning model that independently learned the probabilities of options being safe and of partners being reliable and combined these combined these estimates to generate choices. Advice from partners making a fearful facial expression influenced participants’ decisions more than advice from partners with neutral expressions. Our results showed that participants made better decisions when facing predictive partners and that they cached and transferred partner reliability estimates into new blocks. Using simulations we show that participants’ transfer of social information into novel contexts is better adapted to variable social environments where social partners may change their cuing strategy or become untrustworthy. Finally, we found no relation between autism questionnaire scores and performance in our task, but do find autism trait related differences in learning rate parameters.}, keywords = {Autism, Decision making, Emotions, Facial expressions, Fear, Fractals, Human learning, Learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Learning to avoid harmful consequences can be a costly trial-and-error process. In such situations, social information can be leveraged to improve individual learning outcomes. Here, we investigated how participants used their own experiences and others’ social cues to avoid harm. Participants made repeated choices between harmful and safe options, each with different probabilities of generating shocks, while also seeing the image of a social partner. Some partners made predictive gaze cues towards the harmful choice option while others cued an option at random, and did so using neutral or fearful facial expressions. We tested how learned social information about partner reliability transferred across contexts by letting participants encounter the same partner in multiple trial blocks while facing novel choice options. Participants’ decisions were best explained by a reinforcement learning model that independently learned the probabilities of options being safe and of partners being reliable and combined these combined these estimates to generate choices. Advice from partners making a fearful facial expression influenced participants’ decisions more than advice from partners with neutral expressions. Our results showed that participants made better decisions when facing predictive partners and that they cached and transferred partner reliability estimates into new blocks. Using simulations we show that participants’ transfer of social information into novel contexts is better adapted to variable social environments where social partners may change their cuing strategy or become untrustworthy. Finally, we found no relation between autism questionnaire scores and performance in our task, but do find autism trait related differences in learning rate parameters. |
Vieira, J B; Schellhaas, S; Enström, E; Olsson, A Help or flight? Increased threat imminence promotes defensive helping in humans Journal Article Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 2020. Links | BibTeX | Tags: Altruism, Defensive state, Empathy, Fear, Fight–flight, Freezing, Prosocial @article{Vieira2020, title = {Help or flight? Increased threat imminence promotes defensive helping in humans}, author = {J B Vieira and S Schellhaas and E Enstr\"{o}m and A Olsson}, url = {https://psyarxiv.com/bckn3/}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2020.1473}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-08-26}, journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B}, keywords = {Altruism, Defensive state, Empathy, Fear, Fight\textendashflight, Freezing, Prosocial}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } |
Undeger, I; Visser, R M; Olsson, A Neural pattern similarity unveils the integration of social information and aversive learning Journal Article Cerebral Cortex, pp. 1-10, 2020. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Aversive learning, Conditioning, Intention, MVPA, RSA @article{Undeger2020, title = {Neural pattern similarity unveils the integration of social information and aversive learning}, author = {I Undeger and R M Visser and A Olsson}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Undeger-Visser-Olsson-2020-Neural-pattern-similarity-unveils-the-integration-of-social-information-and-aversive-learning.pdf}, doi = {10.1093/cercor/bhaa122}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-06-24}, journal = {Cerebral Cortex}, pages = {1-10}, abstract = {Attributing intentions to others’ actions is important for learning to avoid their potentially harmful consequences. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging multivariate pattern analysis to investigate how the brain integrates information about others’ intentions with the aversive outcome of their actions. In an interactive aversive learning task, participants (n =33) were scanned while watching two alleged coparticipants (confederates)\textemdashone making choices intentionally and the other unintentionally\textemdashleading to aversive (a mild shock) or safe (no shock) outcomes to the participant. We assessed the trial-by-trial changes in participants’ neural activation patterns related to observing the coparticipants and experiencing the outcome of their choices. Participants reported a higher number of shocks, more discomfort, and more anger to shocks given by the intentional player. Intentionality enhanced responses to aversive actions in the insula, anterior cingulate cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, and the anterior superior temporal sulcus. Our findings indicate that neural pattern similarities index the integration of social and threat information across the cortex.}, keywords = {Aversive learning, Conditioning, Intention, MVPA, RSA}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Attributing intentions to others’ actions is important for learning to avoid their potentially harmful consequences. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging multivariate pattern analysis to investigate how the brain integrates information about others’ intentions with the aversive outcome of their actions. In an interactive aversive learning task, participants (n =33) were scanned while watching two alleged coparticipants (confederates)—one making choices intentionally and the other unintentionally—leading to aversive (a mild shock) or safe (no shock) outcomes to the participant. We assessed the trial-by-trial changes in participants’ neural activation patterns related to observing the coparticipants and experiencing the outcome of their choices. Participants reported a higher number of shocks, more discomfort, and more anger to shocks given by the intentional player. Intentionality enhanced responses to aversive actions in the insula, anterior cingulate cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, and the anterior superior temporal sulcus. Our findings indicate that neural pattern similarities index the integration of social and threat information across the cortex. |
Vieira, J B; Pierzchajlo, S; Jangard, S; Marsh, A A; Olsson, A Perceived threat and acute anxiety predict increased everyday altruism during the COVID-19 pandemic Unpublished 2020. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Preprint @unpublished{Vieira2020b, title = {Perceived threat and acute anxiety predict increased everyday altruism during the COVID-19 pandemic}, author = {J B Vieira and S Pierzchajlo and S Jangard and A A Marsh and A Olsson}, doi = {10.31234/osf.io/n3t5c}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-06-24}, abstract = {Threatening situations have been shown to influence prosocial and altruistic behaviour in laboratory studies. However, it is unknown whether those effects would transfer to a real-life crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic. In this study, we examined the impact of changing COVID-19 threat on everyday altruism. Specifically, we investigated the association between defensive emotions associated with varying levels of perceived threat imminence, and reported frequency of altruistic behaviours. A sample of 600 United States residents was recruited online via Prolific at 4 different timepoints in March and April (n=150 each week). We collected self-report measures of everyday altruism, Perceived COVID-19 threat, and defensive emotions associated with varying threat imminence (anticipatory versus acute anxiety). Linear mixed effects models were used to predict variation in everyday altruism as a function of perceived COVID-19 threat and defensive emotions. Our results revealed a clear and consistent association between acute anxiety in response to the pandemic, and frequency of altruistic behaviours. No significant association was found between altruism and less acute defensive responses. These results suggest acute defensive emotions associated with higher threat imminence may promote altruistic action during a real-life crisis.}, keywords = {Preprint}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {unpublished} } Threatening situations have been shown to influence prosocial and altruistic behaviour in laboratory studies. However, it is unknown whether those effects would transfer to a real-life crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic. In this study, we examined the impact of changing COVID-19 threat on everyday altruism. Specifically, we investigated the association between defensive emotions associated with varying levels of perceived threat imminence, and reported frequency of altruistic behaviours. A sample of 600 United States residents was recruited online via Prolific at 4 different timepoints in March and April (n=150 each week). We collected self-report measures of everyday altruism, Perceived COVID-19 threat, and defensive emotions associated with varying threat imminence (anticipatory versus acute anxiety). Linear mixed effects models were used to predict variation in everyday altruism as a function of perceived COVID-19 threat and defensive emotions. Our results revealed a clear and consistent association between acute anxiety in response to the pandemic, and frequency of altruistic behaviours. No significant association was found between altruism and less acute defensive responses. These results suggest acute defensive emotions associated with higher threat imminence may promote altruistic action during a real-life crisis. |
Pärnamets, P; Espinosa, L; Olsson, A Physiological synchrony predicts observational threat learning in humans Journal Article Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 2020, ISSN: 1471-2954. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Empathy, Fear, Observational learning, Social learning, Synchrony, Threat @article{P\"{a}rnamets2020, title = {Physiological synchrony predicts observational threat learning in humans}, author = {P P\"{a}rnamets and L Espinosa and A Olsson}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2019.2779}, issn = {1471-2954}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-04-25}, journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B}, abstract = {Understanding how information about threats in the environment is shared and transmitted between individuals is crucial for explaining adaptive, survival-related behavior in humans and other animals, and for developing treatments for phobias and other anxiety disorders. Research across species has shown that observing a conspecific’s, a “demonstrator’s”, threat responses causes strong and persistent threat memories in the “observer”. Here, we examined if physiological synchrony between demonstrator and observer can serve to predict the strength of observationally acquired conditioned responses. We measured synchrony between demonstrators' and observers' phasic electrodermal signals during learning, which directly reflects autonomic nervous system activity. Prior interpersonal synchrony predicted the strength of the observer's later skin conductance responses to threat predicting stimuli, in the absence of the demonstrator. Dynamic coupling between an observer's and a demonstrator's autonomic nervous system activity may reflect experience sharing processes facilitating the formation of observational threat associations.}, keywords = {Empathy, Fear, Observational learning, Social learning, Synchrony, Threat}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Understanding how information about threats in the environment is shared and transmitted between individuals is crucial for explaining adaptive, survival-related behavior in humans and other animals, and for developing treatments for phobias and other anxiety disorders. Research across species has shown that observing a conspecific’s, a “demonstrator’s”, threat responses causes strong and persistent threat memories in the “observer”. Here, we examined if physiological synchrony between demonstrator and observer can serve to predict the strength of observationally acquired conditioned responses. We measured synchrony between demonstrators' and observers' phasic electrodermal signals during learning, which directly reflects autonomic nervous system activity. Prior interpersonal synchrony predicted the strength of the observer's later skin conductance responses to threat predicting stimuli, in the absence of the demonstrator. Dynamic coupling between an observer's and a demonstrator's autonomic nervous system activity may reflect experience sharing processes facilitating the formation of observational threat associations. |
Hillman, K; Mancke, F; Herpertz, S; Jungkunz, M; Olsson, A; Haaker, J; and Bertsch, K Intact classical fear conditioning to interpersonally threatening stimuli in borderline personality disorder Journal Article Psychopathology, 2020. BibTeX | Tags: Fear conditioning @article{Hillman2020, title = {Intact classical fear conditioning to interpersonally threatening stimuli in borderline personality disorder}, author = {K Hillman and F Mancke and S Herpertz and M Jungkunz and A Olsson and J Haaker and and K Bertsch}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-04-24}, journal = {Psychopathology}, keywords = {Fear conditioning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } |
Olsson, A; Knapska, E; Lindström, B The neural and computational systems of social learning Journal Article Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 21 (4), pp. 197-212, 2020. Links | BibTeX | Tags: Social learning @article{Olsson2020, title = {The neural and computational systems of social learning}, author = {A Olsson and E Knapska and B Lindstr\"{o}m}, doi = {10.1038/s41583-020-0276-4}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-03-12}, journal = {Nature Reviews Neuroscience}, volume = {21}, number = {4}, pages = {197-212}, keywords = {Social learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } |
Lanbeck, N; Garcia, D; Amato, C; Olsson, A; Sikström, S Implicit attitudes: Quantitative semantic misattribution procedure Book Chapter Statistical Semantics: Methods and Applications, Springer, 2020. BibTeX | Tags: misattribution @inbook{Lanbeck2020, title = {Implicit attitudes: Quantitative semantic misattribution procedure}, author = {N Lanbeck and D Garcia and C Amato and A Olsson and S Sikstr\"{o}m}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-02-16}, booktitle = {Statistical Semantics: Methods and Applications}, publisher = {Springer}, keywords = {misattribution}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {inbook} } |
Stussi, Yoann; Pourtois, Gilles; Olsson, Andreas; Sander, David Learning biases to angry and happy faces during Pavlovian aversive conditioning Journal Article Emotion, 2020. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Angry faces, Emotion, Happy faces, Learning, Pavlovian conditioning @article{Stussi2020, title = {Learning biases to angry and happy faces during Pavlovian aversive conditioning}, author = {Yoann Stussi and Gilles Pourtois and Andreas Olsson and David Sander}, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Stussi-et-al.-2020-Learning-biases-to-angry-and-happy-faces-during-Pavlovian-aversive-conditioning.pdf, Manuscript (PDF) http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Stussi-et-al.-2020-Supplementary.pdf, Supplementary (PDF) https://osf.io/dk2np/, Materials}, year = {2020}, date = {2020-01-23}, journal = {Emotion}, abstract = {Learning biases in Pavlovian aversive conditioning have been found in response to specific categories of threat-relevant stimuli, such as snakes or angry faces. This has been suggested to reflect a selective predisposition to preferentially learn to associate stimuli that provided threats to survival across evolution with aversive outcomes. Here, we contrast with this perspective by highlighting that both threatening (angry faces) and rewarding (happy faces) social stimuli can produce learning biases during Pavlovian aversive conditioning. Using a differential aversive conditioning paradigm, the present study (N = 107) showed that the conditioned response to angry and happy faces was more readily acquired and more resistant to extinction than the conditioned response to neutral faces. Strikingly, whereas the effects for angry faces were of moderate size, the conditioned response persistence to happy faces was of relatively small size and influenced by inter-individual differences in their affective evaluation, as indexed by a Go/No-go Association Task. Computational reinforcement learning analyses further suggested that angry faces were associated with a lower inhibitory learning rate than happy faces, thereby inducing a greater decrease in the impact of negative prediction errors signals that contributed to weakening extinction learning. Altogether, these findings provide further evidence that the occurrence of learning biases in Pavlovian aversive conditioning is not specific to threat-related stimuli and depends on the stimulus' affective relevance to the organism.}, keywords = {Angry faces, Emotion, Happy faces, Learning, Pavlovian conditioning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Learning biases in Pavlovian aversive conditioning have been found in response to specific categories of threat-relevant stimuli, such as snakes or angry faces. This has been suggested to reflect a selective predisposition to preferentially learn to associate stimuli that provided threats to survival across evolution with aversive outcomes. Here, we contrast with this perspective by highlighting that both threatening (angry faces) and rewarding (happy faces) social stimuli can produce learning biases during Pavlovian aversive conditioning. Using a differential aversive conditioning paradigm, the present study (N = 107) showed that the conditioned response to angry and happy faces was more readily acquired and more resistant to extinction than the conditioned response to neutral faces. Strikingly, whereas the effects for angry faces were of moderate size, the conditioned response persistence to happy faces was of relatively small size and influenced by inter-individual differences in their affective evaluation, as indexed by a Go/No-go Association Task. Computational reinforcement learning analyses further suggested that angry faces were associated with a lower inhibitory learning rate than happy faces, thereby inducing a greater decrease in the impact of negative prediction errors signals that contributed to weakening extinction learning. Altogether, these findings provide further evidence that the occurrence of learning biases in Pavlovian aversive conditioning is not specific to threat-related stimuli and depends on the stimulus' affective relevance to the organism. |
2019 |
Selbing, I; Olsson, A Anxious behaviour in a demonstrator affects observational learning Journal Article Scientific Reports, 9 , pp. 9181, 2019. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Anxiety, Observational learning @article{Selbing2019, title = {Anxious behaviour in a demonstrator affects observational learning}, author = {I Selbing and A Olsson}, url = {www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-45613-1}, year = {2019}, date = {2019-06-24}, journal = {Scientific Reports}, volume = {9}, pages = {9181}, abstract = {Humans can acquire fear through the observation of others’ (learning models’) threat responses. These responses can be direct responses to aversive stimuli, or anticipatory responses to threats. Most research focuses on learning from observation of direct responses only. Here, we investigated how observational fear conditioning is influenced by a learning model’s typically anxious anticipatory responses. High anxiety individuals often display typically anxious anticipatory behaviour, such as worsened discrimination between safe and unsafe stimuli, characterized by increased threat responses to safe stimuli. We hypothesized that observation of an anxiously behaving model would worsen discriminatory learning. To this end, we developed an observational conditioning paradigm where a learning model was exposed to one safe and one unsafe stimuli. The learning model displayed anticipatory aversion to either to the unsafe stimulus only (Non-Anxious Model group) or to both the safe and unsafe stimuli (Anxious Model group) in addition to reacting directly to an aversive stimulus paired with the unsafe stimulus. Contrary to expectations, discriminatory learning was not worsened in the Anxious Model group compared to the Non-Anxious Model group. Rather, we saw more robust discriminatory learning in the Anxious Model group. The study provides a first step towards understanding the effect of other’s anticipatory responses in general and typically anxious anticipatory responses in particular, on observational fear learning.}, keywords = {Anxiety, Observational learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } Humans can acquire fear through the observation of others’ (learning models’) threat responses. These responses can be direct responses to aversive stimuli, or anticipatory responses to threats. Most research focuses on learning from observation of direct responses only. Here, we investigated how observational fear conditioning is influenced by a learning model’s typically anxious anticipatory responses. High anxiety individuals often display typically anxious anticipatory behaviour, such as worsened discrimination between safe and unsafe stimuli, characterized by increased threat responses to safe stimuli. We hypothesized that observation of an anxiously behaving model would worsen discriminatory learning. To this end, we developed an observational conditioning paradigm where a learning model was exposed to one safe and one unsafe stimuli. The learning model displayed anticipatory aversion to either to the unsafe stimulus only (Non-Anxious Model group) or to both the safe and unsafe stimuli (Anxious Model group) in addition to reacting directly to an aversive stimulus paired with the unsafe stimulus. Contrary to expectations, discriminatory learning was not worsened in the Anxious Model group compared to the Non-Anxious Model group. Rather, we saw more robust discriminatory learning in the Anxious Model group. The study provides a first step towards understanding the effect of other’s anticipatory responses in general and typically anxious anticipatory responses in particular, on observational fear learning. |
Lindström, B; Golkar, A; Jangard, S; Tobler, P N; Olsson, A Social threat learning transfers to decision making in humans Journal Article Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2019. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Decision making, Fear, Pavlovian instrumental transfer, Reinforcement learning, Social learning @article{Lindstr\"{o}m2019, title = {Social threat learning transfers to decision making in humans}, author = {B Lindstr\"{o}m and A Golkar and S Jangard and P N Tobler and A Olsson}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.1810180116}, year = {2019}, date = {2019-02-13}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, abstract = {In today’s world, mass-media and online social networks present us with unprecedented exposure to second-hand, vicarious experiences and thereby the chance of forming associations between previously innocuous events (e.g., being in a subway station) and aversive outcomes (e.g., footage or verbal reports from a violent terrorist attack) without direct experience. Such social threat, or fear, learning can have dramatic consequences, as manifested in acute stress symptoms and maladaptive fears. However, most research has so far focused on socially acquired threat responses that are expressed as increased arousal rather than active behavior. In three experiments (n = 120), we examined the effect of indirect experiences on behaviors by establishing a link between social threat learning and instrumental decision making. We contrasted learning from direct experience (i.e., Pavlovian conditioning) (experiment 1) against two common forms of social threat learning\textemdashsocial observation (experiment 2) and verbal instruction (experiment 3)\textemdashand how this learning transferred to subsequent instrumental decision making using behavioral experiments and computational modeling. We found that both types of social threat learning transfer to decision making in a strong and surprisingly inflexible manner. Notably, computational modeling indicated that the transfer of observational and instructed threat learning involved different computational mechanisms. Our results demonstrate the strong influence of others’ expressions of fear on one’s own decisions and have important implications for understanding both healthy and pathological human behaviors resulting from the indirect exposure to threatening events.}, keywords = {Decision making, Fear, Pavlovian instrumental transfer, Reinforcement learning, Social learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } In today’s world, mass-media and online social networks present us with unprecedented exposure to second-hand, vicarious experiences and thereby the chance of forming associations between previously innocuous events (e.g., being in a subway station) and aversive outcomes (e.g., footage or verbal reports from a violent terrorist attack) without direct experience. Such social threat, or fear, learning can have dramatic consequences, as manifested in acute stress symptoms and maladaptive fears. However, most research has so far focused on socially acquired threat responses that are expressed as increased arousal rather than active behavior. In three experiments (n = 120), we examined the effect of indirect experiences on behaviors by establishing a link between social threat learning and instrumental decision making. We contrasted learning from direct experience (i.e., Pavlovian conditioning) (experiment 1) against two common forms of social threat learning—social observation (experiment 2) and verbal instruction (experiment 3)—and how this learning transferred to subsequent instrumental decision making using behavioral experiments and computational modeling. We found that both types of social threat learning transfer to decision making in a strong and surprisingly inflexible manner. Notably, computational modeling indicated that the transfer of observational and instructed threat learning involved different computational mechanisms. Our results demonstrate the strong influence of others’ expressions of fear on one’s own decisions and have important implications for understanding both healthy and pathological human behaviors resulting from the indirect exposure to threatening events. |
2018 |
Olsson, A; FeldmanHall, O; Haaker, J; Hensler, T Social regulation of survival circuits through learning Journal Article Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 24 , pp. 161-167, 2018. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Fear conditioning, Social learning @article{Olsson2018b, title = {Social regulation of survival circuits through learning}, author = {A Olsson and O FeldmanHall and J Haaker and T Hensler}, editor = {D Mobbs and J LeDoux}, url = {https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1Xv9c8MqMiUmYH}, doi = {10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.09.016}, year = {2018}, date = {2018-12-01}, journal = {Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences}, volume = {24}, pages = {161-167}, abstract = {In social species such our own, learning about the value of things, people and situations often takes place in social situations. Here, we review new cross-species research on the social regulation of basic survival functions, such as defensive responses that are linked to basic learning processes. We show that domain-general learning brain circuits, specifically those involved in Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning, integrate information from the social domain to aid a variety of phenomena, ranging from social avoidance to the learning of moral values. We review behavioral and neural evidence highlighting both similarities and differences between social and non-social forms of learning, and suggest an integrative framework of social learning of value with the aim to further our mechanistic understanding of the interaction between survival circuits and social learning.}, keywords = {Fear conditioning, Social learning}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {article} } In social species such our own, learning about the value of things, people and situations often takes place in social situations. Here, we review new cross-species research on the social regulation of basic survival functions, such as defensive responses that are linked to basic learning processes. We show that domain-general learning brain circuits, specifically those involved in Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning, integrate information from the social domain to aid a variety of phenomena, ranging from social avoidance to the learning of moral values. We review behavioral and neural evidence highlighting both similarities and differences between social and non-social forms of learning, and suggest an integrative framework of social learning of value with the aim to further our mechanistic understanding of the interaction between survival circuits and social learning. |
Pärnamets, P; Granwald, T; Olsson, A Building and Dismantling Trust: From Group Learning to Character Judgments Conference Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Cognitive Science Society, Austin, TX, 2018. Abstract | Links | BibTeX | Tags: Decision making, Morality, Reinforcement learning, Trust @conference{P\"{a}rnamets2018, title = {Building and Dismantling Trust: From Group Learning to Character Judgments}, author = {P P\"{a}rnamets and T Granwald and A Olsson}, editor = {T T Rogers and M Rau and X Zhu and C W Kalish }, url = {http://www.emotionlab.se/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/P\"{a}rnamets-Granwald-Olsson-Building-and-Dismantling-Trust-From-Group-Learning-to-Character-Judgments-2018.pdf}, year = {2018}, date = {2018-08-13}, booktitle = {Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society}, pages = {1-6}, publisher = {Cognitive Science Society}, address = {Austin, TX}, abstract = {Trust is central to social behavior. In interactions between strangers some information about group affiliation is almost always available. Despite this, how group information is utilized to promote trust in interactions between strangers is poorly understood. Here we addressed this through a two-stage experiment where participants interacted with randomly selected members of two arbitrary groups and learnt their relative trustworthiness. Next, they interacted with four novel individuals from these two groups. Two members, one from each group, acted congruently with their group’s previous behavior while the other two acted incongruently. While participants readily learnt the group-level information in the first phase, this was swiftly discounted in favor of information about each individual partner’s actual behavior. We fit a reinforcement learning model which included a bias term capturing propensity to trust to the data from the first phase. The bias term from the RL model predicted participants’ initial behavior better than their expectations based on group membership. Pro-social tendencies and individuating information can overcome knowledge about group belonging.}, keywords = {Decision making, Morality, Reinforcement learning, Trust}, pubstate = {published}, tppubtype = {conference} } Trust is central to social behavior. In interactions between strangers some information about group affiliation is almost always available. Despite this, how group information is utilized to promote trust in interactions between strangers is poorly understood. Here we addressed this through a two-stage experiment where participants interacted with randomly selected members of two arbitrary groups and learnt their relative trustworthiness. Next, they interacted with four novel individuals from these two groups. Two members, one from each group, acted congruently with their group’s previous behavior while the other two acted incongruently. While participants readily learnt the group-level information in the first phase, this was swiftly discounted in favor of information about each individual partner’s actual behavior. We fit a reinforcement learning model which included a bias term capturing propensity to trust to the data from the first phase. The bias term from the RL model predicted participants’ initial behavior better than their expectations based on group membership. Pro-social tendencies and individuating information can overcome knowledge about group belonging. |
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